Nepal

TOURISM

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TOURISM

Tourism was a major source of foreign exchange earnings. Especially since Mount Everest (Sagarmatha in Nepali) was first climbed by Sir Edmund Hillary and Tensing Sherpa in 1953, the Himalayas have attracted foreigners to Nepal. Mountaineering and hiking were of considerable interest as were rafting, canoeing, and hang gliding. Tourism was facilitated with the opening of airways to Kathmandu and other parts of the country and the easing of travel restrictions.

In the 1950s, there was a shortage of hotels. Beginning in the 1960s, the government encouraged the building of hotels and other tourist facilities through loans. According to government statistics, between 1985 and 1988 the number of hotel rooms increased from under 22,000 to more than 27,000.

Prior to the trade impasse with India beginning in March 1989, tourism had grown by more than 10 percent per year for most of the 1980s. Between 1985 and 1988, the number of tourists increased from approximately 181,000 to about 266,000. More than 80 percent of the tourists arrived in the country by air.

In FY 1985, more than US$40 million worth of foreign exchange was earned through tourism. By FY 1988, this amount had increased to more than US$64 million. In FY 1989, tourism accounted for more than 3.5 percent of GDP and about 25 percent of total foreign exchange earnings. The 1989 trade and transit impasse with India negatively affected tourism because the transport and service sectors of the economy lacked supplies. Beginning in FY 1990, however, Kathmandu initiated a policy to allocate fuel on a priority basis to tour operators and hotels.

INDUSTRY

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INDUSTRY

During the 1950s and 1960s, Kathmandu received aid commitments from Moscow and Beijing. During the 1960s, Soviet and Chinese aid also supported development of a few government-owned industries. Most of the industries established used agricultural products such as jute, sugar, and tea as raw materials. Other industries were dependent on various inputs imported from other countries, mainly India.

As a result of the 1989-90 trade dispute with India, many inputs were unavailable, causing lower capacity utilization in some industries. During the same period, Nepal also lost India as its traditional market for certain goods. Because of the lack of industrial materials, such as coal, furnace oil, machinery, and spare parts, there was a considerable adverse impact on industrial production.

Industry accounted for less than 20 percent of total GDP in the 1980s. Relatively small by international standards, most of the industries established in the 1950s and 1960s were developed with government protection. Traditional cottage industries, including basket-weaving as well as cotton fabric and edible oil production, comprised approximately 60 percent of industrial output; there also were efforts to develop cottage industries to produce furniture, soap, and textiles. The remainder of industrial output came from modern industries, such as jute mills, cigarette factories, and cement plants.

Manufacturing

Among the modern industries were large manufacturing plants, including many public sector operations. The major manufacturing industries produced jute, sugar, cigarettes, beer, matches, shoes, chemicals, cement, and bricks. The garment and carpet industries, targeted at export production, have grown rapidly since the mid1980s whereas jute production has declined. Industrial estates were located in Patan (also called Lalitpur), Balaju, Hetauda, Pokhara, Dharan, Butawal, and Nepalganj. The government provided the land and buildings for the industrial estates, but the industries themselves were mostly privately owned.

The 1986-87 Nepal Standard Industrial Classification counted 2,054 manufacturing establishments of 10 or more persons from 51 major industry groups, employing about 125,000 workers. That same year the total output from these industries amounted to about Rs10 billion; value added was estimated at almost Rs3.6 billion. It was nearly Rs5.1 billion in FY 1989. By FY 1989, there were 2,334 such establishments recorded, employing about 141,000 persons.

Private Industry

The history of incorporated private firms in Nepal is short. The Nepal Companies Act of 1936 provided for the incorporation of industrial enterprises on joint stock principle with limited liability. The first such firm, Biratnagar Jute Mills, was a collaborative venture of Indian and Nepalese entrepreneurs. It was formed in 1936 with initial capital of 160,000 Indian rupees.

In response to shortages of some consumer goods during World War II (1939-45), fourteen private companies emerged in such diverse fields as mining, electrical generation, and paper and soap production. The initial capital invested in each of these industries was small. In 1942 two paper mills emerged as joint ventures of Nepalese and Indian entrepreneurs. Industrial growth gained momentum after 1945, although the end of World War II had reduced the scarcity of goods and caused many of these companies to incur losses.

Under the Nepal Companies Act, there was no provision for private limited companies. In 1951, however, a new act was implemented with provisions for private limited companies. This act encouraged the establishment of ninety-two new private joint stock companies between 1952 and 1964. Most of these companies were much smaller than existing companies. Under the provisions of the 1951 act, public disclosure of the activities of the firms was not required, whereas the 1936 act allowed substantial government intervention. The Industrial Enterprises Act of 1974 and its frequent amendments shifted the government's emphasis on growth from the public to the private sector. However, discrepancies between policy and practice were evident, and the public sector continued to be favored.

Public Companies

Public companies also had varied success. Between 1936 and 1939, twenty public companies were formed, of which three failed. Between 1945 and 1951, thirty-five public firms were incorporated, six of which went out of business. Between 1936 and 1963, fiftyfour firms were incorporated, but at the end of 1963 only thirtyfour remained in operation. The success of public companies continued to be erratic.

Minerals

Because only a few minerals were available in small quantities for commercial utilization, the mineral industry's contribution to the economy was small. Most mineral commodities were used for domestic construction. The principal mineral agency was the Department of Mines and Geology. Geological surveys conducted in the past had indicated the possibility of major metallic and industrial mineral deposits, but a poor infrastructure and lack of a skilled work force inhibited further development of the mineral industry.

The most important mineral resources exploited were limestone for cement, clay, garnet, magnetite, and talc. Crude magnetite production declined from a high of approximately 63,200 tons in 1986 to approximately 28,000 tons in 1989; it was projected to decline further to 25,000 tons in 1990.

In 1990 mineral production decreased significantly, largely because of political unrest. Production of cement fell approximately 51 percent over 1989--from approximately 218,000 tons to about 107,200 tons. Production of clays for cement manufacture dropped from 7,206 tons to 824 tons. Lignite production decreased 19 percent, and talc production fell 73 percent. Ornamental marble production, however, increased in 1989--by 100 percent in cut marble and 1,560 percent in marble chips.

Nonetheless, the mining industry had the potential to become a more important part of the economy, as new mines were being planned or were being developed. Two cement plants already were in operation, and a third one was being planned. It was expected that with full production in the three plants, Nepal might become selfsufficient in cement. A magnetite mine and pressuring plant east of Kathmandu had completed its construction phase and began production of chalk powder (talcum powder) on a trial basis in 1990. A highgrade lead and zinc mine was being developed north of Kathmandu in the region of Ganesh Himal and was expected to become operational in the 1990s, although raising enough capital for the project was problematic. Production of agricultural lime in 1989 doubled that of the previous year, suggesting that progress was being made towards meeting requirements of the agricultural sector.

FORESTS

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FORESTS

From 1950 to 1980, Nepal lost half of its forest cover. The first scientific measurement of forest resources was done in a 1964 survey, which estimated about 6.5 million hectares of forest area. Studies indicated that as of 1987 the forest area in the hills had remained the same but that elsewhere forests had been degraded. By 1988 forests covered only approximately 30 percent of the land area. Deforestation was typical of much of the country and was linked to increased demands for grazing land, farmland, and fodder as the animal and human populations grew. Further, most of the population's energy needs were met by firewood. All these factors exacerbated deforestation.

Fuelwood needs of the population mainly resulted from the lack of alternative sources of energy. This fact was particularly evident during the 1989 trade and transit impasse with India when the dispute resulted in a shortage of domestic cooking fuel. Because of the decreased availability of kerosene during this period, the demand for fuelwood rose sharply in the Kathmandu Valley, and fuelwood consumption increased by an estimated 415 percent.

Deforestation caused erosion and complicated cultivation, affecting the future productivity of agricultural lands. Although several laws to counter degradation had been enacted, the results were modest, and government plans for afforestation had not met their targets. The government also established the Timber Corporation of Nepal, the Fuelwood Corporation, and the Forest Products Development Board to harvest the forests in such a way that their degradation would be retarded. In 1988-89 the Fuelwood Corporation merged with the Timber Corporation of Nepal, but forest management through these and other government agencies had made very little progress. In FY 1989, more than 28,000 hectares were targeted for afforestation, but only approximately 23,000 hectares were afforested that year.

A twenty-one-year forestry master plan was devised in FY 1989 to stem deforestation. Implemented with the help of the Asian Development Bank, the program targeted reforestation and education. It sought to maintain the forestation level at 37 percent of land area.

LAND REFORM

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LAND REFORM

Nepal was long under a feudal system where a small number of landlords held most of the agricultural land. The state extended its control over the land by the administrative device of making land grants and assignments and raising revenues. Most of the landlords who were granted state lands were not directly involved in farming but contracted with tenant farmers on a customary, and hereditary, basis. The basic purpose of land reform was to protect the tenant farmers, take away excess holdings from landlords, and distribute property to farmers with small landholdings (holding one to three hectares) and landless agrarian households.

Efforts at land reform began with the enactment of the Land and Cultivation Record Compilation Act in 1956 and continued with the Lands Act in 1957 when the government began to compile tenants' records. Although these acts facilitated land reform, the lot of the small farmer did not improve, and further efforts were made. The Agricultural Reorganization Act, passed in 1963, and the Land Reform Act, passed in 1964, emphasized security for tenant farmers and put a ceiling on landholdings. There were several loopholes in the acts, however, which continued to allow large landholders to control most of the lands. There was some success in protecting the rights of tenant farmers, but not much was achieved in land redistribution. As of 1990, average landholdings remained small.

AGRICULTURE

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AGRICULTURE

Agriculture dominated the economy. In the late 1980s, it was the livelihood for more than 90 percent of the population--although only approximately 20 percent of the total land area was cultivable--and accounted for, on average, about 60 percent of the GDP and approximately 75 percent of exports. Since the formulation of the Fifth Five-Year Plan (1975-80), agriculture has been the highest priority because economic growth was dependent on both increasing the productivity of existing crops and diversifying the agricultural base for use as industrial inputs.

In trying to increase agricultural production and diversify the agricultural base, the government focused on irrigation, the use of fertilizers and insecticides, the introduction of new implements and new seeds of high-yield varieties, and the provision of credit. The lack of distribution of these inputs, as well as problems in obtaining supplies, however, inhibited progress. Although land reclamation and settlement were occurring in the Tarai Region, environmental degradation--ecological imbalance resulting from deforestation--also prevented progress.

Although new agricultural technologies helped increase food production, there still was room for further growth. Past experience indicated bottlenecks, however, in using modern technology to achieve a healthy growth. The conflicting goals of producing cash crops both for food and for industrial inputs also were problematic.

The production of crops fluctuated widely as a result of these factors as well as weather conditions. Although agricultural production grew at an average annual rate of 2.4 percent from 1974 to 1989, it did not keep pace with population growth, which increased at an average annual rate of 2.6 percent over the same period. Further, the annual average growth rate of food grain production was only 1.2 percent during the same period.

There were some successes. Fertile lands in the Tarai Region and hardworking peasants in the Hill Region provided greater supplies of food staples (mostly rice and corn), increasing the daily caloric intake of the population locally to over 2,000 calories per capita in 1988 from about 1,900 per capita in 1965. Moreover, areas with access to irrigation facilities increased from approximately 6,200 hectares in 1956 to nearly 583,000 hectares by 1990.

Rice was the most important cereal crop. In 1966 total rice production amounted to a little more than 1 million tons; by 1989 more than 3 million tons were produced. Fluctuation in rice production was very common because of changes in rainfall; overall, however, rice production had increased following the introduction of new cultivation techniques as well as increases in cultivated land. By 1988 approximately 3.9 million hectares of land were under paddy cultivation. In 1966 approximately 500,000 tons of corn, the second major food crop, were produced. By 1989 corn production had increased to over 1 million tons.

Other food crops included wheat, millet, and barley, but their contribution to the agricultural sector was small. Increased production of cash crops--used as input to new industries--dominated in the early 1970s. Sugarcane and tobacco also showed considerable increases in production from the 1970s to the l980s. Potatoes and oilseed production had shown moderate growth since 1980. Medicinal herbs were grown in the north on the slopes of the Himalayas, but increases in production were limited by continued environmental degradation. According to government statistics, production of milk, meat, and fruit had improved but as of the late 1980s still had not reached a point where nutritionally balanced food was available to most people. Additionally, the increases in meat and milk production had not met the desired level of output as of 1989.

Food grains contributed 76 percent of total crop production in 1988-89. In 1989-90 despite poor weather conditions and a lack of agricultural inputs--particularly fertilizer--there was a production increase of 5 percent. In fact, severe weather fluctuations often affected production levels. Some of the gains in production through the 1980s were due to increased productivity of the work force (about 7 percent over fifteen years); other gains were due to increased land use and favorable weather conditions.

LABOR

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LABOR

Workers' rights and organized labor were in transition in mid1991 . During the late 1940s and early 1950s, some labor disputes led to strikes and lockouts and labor unions sprang up in various factories. In 1957 the government announced the Industrial Policy of Nepal, under which it undertook the responsibility of promoting, assisting, and regulating industries.

The Factories and Factory Workers' Act of 1959 established rules and regulations to govern labor-management relationships and working conditions in factories. The 1977 amended version of the act provided for a six-day, forty-eight-hour work week, thirty days annually for holidays and fifteen days annually for sick leave, and some health and safety standards and benefits. Implementation of the act, a responsibility of the Ministry of Labor and Social Services, was not always forthcoming, however, and was only somewhat affected by the success of the prodemocracy movement.

A revision of the body of labor laws was pending in mid-1991; it was to include a code that defined and regulated workers' rights. Labor unions, restricted prior to the July 1991 repeal of the Organization and Control Act of 1963, still were limited. Estimates suggested that only approximately 3 percent of the economically active population, or 30 percent of nonagricultural workers, were union members.

Because of limited industrialization, unemployment and particularly underemployment were quite high. In 1977 the National Planning Commission undertook a survey, which determined unemployment to be 5.6 percent in rural areas and almost 6 percent in urban areas. Underemployment was estimated to be about 63 percent in rural areas and about 45 percent in urban areas. In 1981 the Asian Regional Team for Employment Production estimated the unemployment and underemployment rates to range from 21 to 28 percent in the Tarai Region and from 37 to 47 percent in the Hill Region. The availability of nonagricultural employment opportunities in the labor force was reported at approximately 600,000 positions in 1981. Underemployment for all of Nepal was reported to range from 25 to 40 percent in 1987; unemployment nationally stood at 5 percent.

MONEY AND BANKING

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MONEY AND BANKING

Nepal's first commercial bank, the Nepal Bank Limited, was established in 1937. The government owned 51 percent of the shares in the bank and controlled its operations to a large extent. Nepal Bank Limited was headquartered in Kathmandu and had branches in other parts of the country.

There were other government banking institutions. Rastriya Banijya Bank (National Commercial Bank), a state-owned commercial bank, was established in 1966. The Land Reform Savings Corporation was established in 1966 to deal with finances related to land reforms.

There were two other specialized financial institutions. Nepal Industrial Development Corporation, a state-owned development finance organization headquartered in Kathmandu, was established in 1959 with United States assistance to offer financial and technical assistance to private industry. Although the government invested in the corporation, representatives from the private business sector also sat on the board of directors. The Co-operative Bank, which became the Agricultural Development Bank in 1967, was the main source of financing for small agribusinesses and cooperatives. Almost 75 percent of the bank was state-owned; 21 percent was owned by the Nepal Rastra Bank, and 5 percent by cooperatives and private individuals. The Agricultural Development Bank also served as the government's implementing agency for small farmers' group development projects assisted by the Asian Development Bank and financed by the United Nations Development Programme. The Ministry of Finance reported in 1990 that the Agricultural Development Bank, which is vested with the leading role in agricultural loan investment, had granted loans to only 9 percent of the total number of farming families since 1965.

Since the 1960s, both commercial and specialized banks have expanded. More businesses and households had better access to the credit market although the credit market had not expanded.

In the mid-1980s, three foreign commercial banks opened branches in Nepal. The Nepal Arab Bank was co-owned by the Emirates Bank International Limited (Dubai), the Nepalese government, and the Nepalese public. The Nepal Indosuez Bank was jointly owned by the French Banque Indosuez, Rastriya Banijya Bank, Rastriya Beema Sansthan (National Insurance Corporation), and the Nepalese public. Nepal Grindlays Bank was co-owned by a British firm called Grindlays Bank, local financial interests, and the Nepalese public.

Nepal Rastra Bank was created in 1956 as the central bank. Its function was to supervise commercial banks and to guide the basic monetary policy of the nation. Its major aims were to regulate the issue of paper money; secure countrywide circulation of Nepalese currency and achieve stability in its exchange rates; mobilize capital for economic development and for trade and industry growth; develop the banking system in the country, thereby ensuring the existence of banking facilities; and maintain the economic interests of the general public. Nepal Rastra Bank also was to oversee foreign exchange rates and foreign exchange reserves.

Prior to the establishment of Nepal Rastra Bank, Kathmandu had little control over its foreign currency holdings. Indian rupees were the prevalent medium of exchange in most parts of the country. Nepalese currency was used mostly in the Kathmandu Valley and the surrounding hill areas. The existence of a dual currency system made it hard for the government to know the status of Indian currency holdings in Nepal. The exchange rates between Indian and Nepalese rupees were determined in the marketplace. Between 1932 and 1955, the value of 100 Indian rupees varied between Rs71 and Rs177. The government entered the currency market with a form of fixed exchange rate between the two currencies in 1958. An act passed in 1960 sought to regulate foreign exchange transactions. Beginning in the 1960s, the government made special efforts to use Nepalese currency inside the country as a medium of exchange.

It was only after the signing of the 1960 Trade and Transit Treaty with India that Nepal had full access to foreign currencies other than the Indian rupee. Prior to the treaty, all foreign exchange earnings went to the Central Bank of India, and all foreign currency needs were provided by the Indian government. After 1960 Nepal had full access to all foreign currency transactions and directly controlled its exports and imports with countries other than India.

As a result of the treaty, the government had to separate Indian currency (convertible currency because of free convertibility) from other currencies (nonconvertible currency because it was directly controlled by Nepal Rastra Bank). In 1991 government statistics still separated trade with India from trade with other countries. Tables showing international reserves listed convertible and nonconvertible foreign exchange reserves separately.

ROLE OF GOVERNMENT

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ROLE OF GOVERNMENT

Government participation (or interference) in the economy was very strong, beginning with the Rana period, which lasted from the mid-nineteenth century until the mid-twentieth century. During Rana rule, there were very few industries other than cottage type, and they were under strict government supervision. After the fall of the Ranas in 1950-51, economic planning as an approach to development was discussed. Finally, in 1956 the First Five-Year Plan (1956-61) was announced.

The Five-Year Plans

Economic plans generally strove to increase output and employment; develop the infrastructure; attain economic stability; promote industry, commerce, and international trade; establish administrative and public service institutions to support economic development; and introduce labor-intensive production techniques to alleviate underemployment. The social goals of the plans were improving health and education as well as encouraging equitable income distribution. Although each plan had different development priorities, the allocation of resources did not always reflect these priorities. The first four plans concentrated on infrastructure--to make it possible to facilitate the movement of goods and services--and to increase the size of the market. Each of the five-year plans depended heavily on foreign assistance in the forms of grants and loans.

The First Five-Year Plan (1956-61) allocated about Rs576 million for development expenditures. Transportation and communications received top priority with over 36 percent of the budget allocations. Agriculture, including village development and irrigation, took second priority with about 20 percent of budget expenditures. The plan, which also focused on collecting statistics, was not well conceived, however, and resulted in actual expenditures of about Rs382.9 million--two-thirds the budgeted amount. In most cases, targets were missed by a wide margin. For example, although approximately 1,450 kilometers of highways were targeted for construction, only about 565 kilometers were built.

After Parliament, which had been established under the 1959 constitution, was suspended in 1960, the Second Plan failed to materialize on schedule. A new plan was not introduced until 1962 and covered only three years, 1962-65. The Second Plan had expenditures of almost Rs615 million. Transportation and communication again received top priority with about 39 percent of budget expenditures. Industry, tourism, and social services were the second priority. Although targets again were missed, there were improvements in industrial production, road construction, telephone installations, irrigation, and education. However, only the organizational improvement area of the target was met.

The first two plans were developed with very little research and a minimal data base. Neither plan was detailed, and both contained only general terms. The administrative machinery with which to execute these plans also was inadequate. The National Planning Commission, which formulated the second plan, noted the difficulty of preparing plans in the absence of statistical data. Further, as was the case with the first plan, the bulk of the development budget depended on foreign aid--mostly in the form of grants. The failure of these plans was indicated by the government's inability to spend the budgeted amounts.

The Third Five-Year Plan (1965-70) increased the involvement of local panchayat. It also focused on transport, communications, and industrial and agricultural development. Total planned expenditures were more than Rs1.6 billion.

The Fourth Five-Year Plan (1970-75) increased proposed expenditures to more than Rs3.3 billion. Transportation and communications again were the top priority, receiving 41.2 percent of expenditures, followed by agriculture, which was allocated 26 percent of the budget. Although the third and fourth plans increased the involvement of the panchayat in the development process, the central government continued to carry most of the responsibilities.

The Fifth Five-Year Plan (1975-80) proposed expenditures of more than Rs8.8 billion. For the first time, the problem of poverty was addressed in a five-year plan, although no specific goals were mentioned. Top priority was given to agricultural development, and emphasis was placed on increasing food production and cash crops such as sugar cane and tobacco. Increased industrial production and social services also were targeted. Controlling population growth was considered a priority.

The Sixth Five-Year Plan (1980-85) proposed an outlay of more than Rs22 billion. Agriculture remained the top priority; increased social services were second. The budget share allocated to transportation and communication was less than that allocated in the previous plan; it was felt that the transportation network had reached a point where it was more beneficial to increase spending on agriculture and industry.

The Seventh Five-Year Plan (1985-90) proposed expenditures of Rs29 billion. It encouraged private sector participation in the economy (less than Rs22 billion) and local government participation (Rs2 billion). The plan targeted increasing productivity of all sectors, expanding opportunity for productive employment, and fulfilling the minimum basic needs of the people. For the first time since the plans were devised, specific goals were set for meeting basic needs. The availability of food, clothing, fuelwood, drinking water, primary health care, sanitation, primary and skillbased education, and minimum rural transport facilities was emphasized.

Because of the political upheavals in mid-1990, the new government postponed formulating the next plan. The July 1990 budget speech of the minister of finance, however, implied that for the interim, the goals of the seventh plan were being followed.

Foreign aid as a percentage of development averaged around 66 percent. The government continually failed to use all committed foreign aid, however, probably as a result of inefficiency. In the Rs26.6 billion budget presented in July 1991, approximately Rs11.8 billion, or 44.4 percent of the budget, was expected to be derived from foreign loans or grants.

Other Development Programs

The government launched the Structural Adjustment Program and the Basic Needs Program in 1985. These programs stressed selfreliance , financial discipline, and austerity as goals through the year 2000. The Structural Adjustment Program sought to confront some of the longer-term constraints to economic growth. Its measures included increasing domestic resource mobilization, reducing the growth of expenditures and domestic bank borrowings, and strengthening the commercial banking and public enterprise sectors.

The Structural Adjustment Program initiative focused on sustainable growth through balance in different sectors of the economy. Rural development in particular was targeted in order to raise the standard of living and increase agricultural production. Funds for education and health services, electricity and power, irrigation, and transportation and communications were provided. Government subsidies were supposed to be removed, new and improved standards of government efficiency were issued, and privatization of government enterprises was increased. Further, domestic resources were more fully used, and domestic bank borrowings and the growth of expenditures were decreased. The initial response to the Structural Adjustment Program was good, as gross domestic product (GDP), exports, and agriculture showed growth.

The objective of the Basic Needs Program was also to improve the standard of living by increasing food production, as well as to provide clothing, health services, and education. Six goals were to be achieved by the year 2000. Daily food consumption was to be raised to 2,250 calories per capita. Each person was to have the equivalent of eleven meters of clothing and a pair of shoes per year. Housing requirements were estimated at thirty square meters per urban household and at forty to sixty square meters per rural household. Essential utilities and sanitation were to be furnished by the government. Universal primary education for all children between five and ten years of age also was to be provided. The government was responsible for supplying teachers, classrooms, and educational materials, although villagers pitched in with labor and supplies to build schoolhouses. The population growth rate was targeted at 1.9 percent by 2000 (down from 2.6 percent in the 1980s), and life expectancy was to increase to 65 years of age by 2000 (up from almost 51 years in the late 1980s). The infant mortality rate was to be reduced to 45 deaths per 1,000 by the year 2000; World Bank figures placed infant mortality at 171 per 1,000 in 1965 and at 126 per 1,000 in 1988. Universal primary health services also were to be ensured, primarily by the government, improved social services provided to handicapped people, law and order maintained, and an environment conducive to development established.

ECONOMIC SETTING

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ECONOMIC SETTING

Nepal's economy is irrevocably tied to India. Nepal's geographical position and the scarcity of natural resources used in the production of industrial goods meant that its economy was subject to fluctuations resulting from changes in its relationship with India. Trade and transit rights affected the movement of goods and increased transportation costs, although Nepal also engaged in unrecorded border trade with India. Real economic growth averaged 4 percent annually in the 1980s, but the 1989 trade and transit dispute with India adversely affected economic progress, and economic growth declined to only 1.5 percent that year as the availability of imported raw materials for export industries was disrupted.

The Nepalese rupee was linked to the Indian rupee. Since the late 1960s, the universal currency has been Nepalese, although as of 1991 Indian currency still was used as convertible currency. During the trade and transit dispute of 1989, however, Kathmandu made convertibility of the Indian rupee more difficult.

Agricultural domination of the economy had not changed by 1991. What little industrial activity there was largely involved the processing of agricultural products. Since the 1960s, investment in the agricultural sector has not had a parallel effect in productivity per unit of land. Agricultural production continued to be influenced by weather conditions and the lack of arable land and has not always kept pace with population growth.

Nepal suffered from an underdeveloped infrastructure. This problem was exacerbated by a weak public investment program and ineffective administrative services. Economic development plans sought to improve the infrastructure but were implemented at the expense of investment in direct production and resulted in a slow growth rate. Further, economic growth did not keep pace with population growth. Largely dependent on agriculture, economic growth also was undermined by poor harvests. The growth of public expenditures during the first half of the 1980s doubled the current account deficit of the balance of payments and caused a serious decline in international reserves.

HEALTH

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HEALTH
Health-care problems were varied and enormous. Health and health-care facilities were generally poor and directly reflected the mode of life. The majority of people lived in mass poverty and deprivation, while the nation's small wealth was concentrated in the hands of a few. Deprivation was apparent in the pervasiveness of poor nutrition and sanitation, inadequate housing for most families, and the general absence of modern medical care and other social services, especially in rural areas. The rich lived comparatively well but also shared such common problems as the lack of an abundant and clean water supply, and the prevalence of disease.

Diseases and Disease Control
Poor health conditions were evident in the high rate of infant mortality and a short life expectancy. In the mid-1960s, a national health survey was conducted. In 1991 that survey was still considered the major comprehensive published source of information on the national public health situation.
A number of diseases and chronic infections were prevalent. Goiter, a disease directly associated with iodine deficiency, was endemic in certain villages in the hills and mountains. In most of the villages surveyed, more than half of the population had goiter, and in these same villages the incidence of deafness and mental retardation was much higher than in other villages. Leprosy also was a serious problem. Foreign assistance, specifically through Christian missions, was responsible for setting up leprosy treatment centers in different parts of the country. Tuberculosis has been a chronic problem and was more common in urban areas. During the 1970s, the Tuberculosis Control Project was established to provide immunizations to all children younger than fifteen, and it is likely that this project has reduced tuberculosis. Other chronic, widespread problems were intestinal parasites, diarrhea, and gastrointestinal disorders. Some polio and typhoid infections were common but not severe.
Malnutrition was a chronic problem, especially in rural areas. More than 50 percent of the children surveyed were reported to have stunted growth. "Wasting," defined as a condition in which a child has very low weight for his or her height, was also evident. These conditions were particularly bad in the Hill and Mountain regions, both of which suffered from food shortages. The country's public health program, however, has essentially eliminated smallpox and has been able to control malaria, which used to be endemic to the Tarai Region and other lowlands.

Health-Care Facilities

The health-care delivery network in Nepal was poorly developed. Health-care practices in the country could be classified into three major categories: popular folk medical care, which relied on a jhankri (medicine man or shaman); Ayurvedic treatment; and allopathic (modern) medicine. These practices were not necessarily exclusive; most people used all three, depending on the type of illness and the availability of services, sometimes even simultaneously.
Popular folk medicine derived from a large body of commonly held assumptions about magical and supernatural causes of illness. Sickness and death often were attributed to ghosts, demons, and evil spirits, or they were thought to result from the evil eye, planetary influences, or the displeasures of ancestors. Many precautions against these dangers were taken, including the wearing of charms or certain ornaments, the avoidance of certain foods and sights, and the propitiation of ghosts and gods with sacrificial gifts. When illness struck or an epidemic threatened, people went to see a jhankri for treatment. Such pseudomedical practices were ubiquitous; in many parts of Nepal, a jhankri was the only source of medical care available. Nepalese also regularly saw jotishi (Brahman astrologers) for counseling because they believed in planetary influence on their lives, resulting from disalignments of certain planetary signs. Jotishi were commonly relied on even in urban areas, and even by those who were well educated and frequently used modern medicine. And, virtually no arranged marital union was proposed and concluded without first consulting a jotishi.
The Ayurvedic system of medicine was believed to have evolved among the Hindus about 2,000 years ago. It originally was based on the Ayur-Veda (the Veda of Long Life), but a vast literature since has accumulated around this original text. According to the Ayurvedic theory, the body, like the universe, consists of three forces--phlegm, bile, and wind--and physical and spiritual wellbeing rests on maintaining the proper balance among these three internal forces. A harmonious existence between body and mind results. Ayurvedic pharmacopoeia--based on medicinal plants, plant roots, and herbs--remained a major source of medical treatment in Nepal. This school of medical practice also applies the hot-and- cold concept of foods and diets. In the late 1980s, there were nearly 280 practicing Ayurvedic physicians, popularly known as vaidhya, 145 Ayurvedic dispensaries, and a national college of Ayurvedic medicine in Kathmandu.
In 1991 the most commonly used form of medical treatment, especially for major health problems, was modern medicine whenever and wherever accessible. Within the domain of modern medicine, providing public health-care facilities was largely the responsibility of the government. Private facilities also existed in various regions. Modern medical service generally was provided by trained doctors, paramedics, nurses, and other community health workers. The government-operated health-care delivery system consisted of hospitals and health centers, including health posts in rural areas.
Hospitals were located mostly in urban areas and provided a much wider range of medical services than health centers. They were attended by doctors, as well as by nurses, and equipped with basic laboratory facilities. Small health centers and posts in rural areas--most of them staffed by paramedical personnel, health aides, and other minimally trained community health workers--served the needs of the scattered population. Even though these rural facilities were more accessible than urban hospitals, they generally failed to provide necessary services on a regular and consistent basis. The majority of them were barely functional because of such problems as inadequate funding; lack of trained staff; absenteeism; and chronic shortages of equipment, medicines, and vaccines.
Nepal had a total of 123 hospitals, eighteen health centers, and 816 health posts in 1990. There was one hospital bed for every 4,283 persons, an improvement since 1977, when there was one hospital bed for every 6,489 persons. The number of doctors totaled 879 in 1988, or one physician available for about 20,000 people. For the same period, other medical personnel included 601 nurses, 2,062 assistant nurses and midwives, 2,790 senior and assistant auxiliary health workers and health assistants, and 6,808 villagebased health workers.
There was no doubt in the late 1980s that considerable progress had been made in health care, but the available facilities were still inadequate to meet the growing medical needs of the population. The majority of people lacked easy access to modern medical centers, partly because of the absence of such facilities in nearby locations and partly because of the physical barrier posed by the country's rugged terrain. Because there were very few modern means of transportation in rural areas, particularly in the hills and mountains, people had to walk on average about half a day to get to health posts. Such a long walk was not only difficult (especially when the patient needed medical attention), but also meant economic hardship for the majority who rarely could afford to be absent for the whole day from their daily work. As a result, many minor illnesses went untreated, and some of them later developed into major illnesses.
In the early 1990s, Nepal's geographical limitations continued to play a large part in the country's social and economic problems. Moreover, despite twenty-five years of family planning programs, the population growth rate continued to outpace agricultural production and parts of the country continued to be food deficit areas. The educational base was also limited; only one-third of the population was literate. The generally poor health of the population and a lack of adequate health-care facilities also hindered social and economic improvements.

EDUCATION

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Education under Rana Rule
The Rana rulers, who placed Nepal under their feudal yoke for about 100 years until the beginning of the 1950s, feared an educated public. This fear also was held by Prime Minister Chandra Shamsher Rana, who established Tri-Chandra College in 1918 and named it after himself. During the inauguration of the college, Chandra Shamsher lamented that its opening was the ultimate death knell to Rana rule. He personally felt responsible for the downfall of Rana rule, and his words became prophetic for the crumbling of Rana political power in 1950-51.
The privileged access of members of the higher castes and wealthier economic strata to education was for centuries a distinguishing feature of society. The Ranas kept education the exclusive prerogative of the ruling elite; the rest of the population remained largely illiterate. The Ranas were opposed to any form of public schooling for the people, although they emphasized formal instruction for their own children to prepare them for a place in the government.
The founder of the Rana regime, Jang Bahadur Kunwar, later known as Jang Bahadur Rana, decided to give his children an English education rather than the traditional religiously oriented training. In 1854 Jang Bahadur engaged an English tutor to hold classes for his children in the Rana palace. This act tipped the balance in favor of English education and established its supremacy over the traditional type of Sanskrit-based education. In 1991 English education still carried a higher status and prestige than did traditional education.
Jang Bahadur's successor opened these classes to all Rana children and formally organized them into Durbar High School. A brief shift in government education policy came in 1901, when Prime Minister Dev Shamsher Rana took office and called for sweeping education reforms. He proposed a system of universal public primary education, using Nepali as the language of instruction, and opening Durbar High School to children who were not members of the Rana clan. Dev Shamsher's policies were so unpopular that he was deposed within a few months. His call for reforms did not entirely disappear, however. A few Nepali-language primary schools in the Kathmandu Valley, the Hill Region, and the Tarai remained open, and the practice of admitting a few middle- and low-caste children to Durbar High School continued.
Before World War II (1939-45), several new English middle and high schools were founded in Patan, Biratnagar, and elsewhere, and a girls' high school was opened in Kathmandu. In the villages, public respect for education was increasing, largely as a result of the influence of returning Gurkha soldiers, many of whom had learned to read and write while serving in the British army. Some retired soldiers began giving rudimentary education to children in their villages. Some members of the high-caste, elite families sent their children to Patna University, Banaras Hindu University, or other universities in India for higher academic or technical training. It was in fact, some of these students, having realized how oppressive the policies of Rana rule were, who initiated antiRana movements, provided revolutionary cadres, and finally began the revolution that ultimately led to the overthrow of Rana rule in 1951.
Before the 1950-51 revolution, Nepal had 310 primary and middle schools, eleven high schools, two colleges, one normal school, and one special technical school. In the early 1950s, the average literacy rate was 5 percent. Literacy among males was 10 percent and among females less than 1 percent. Only 1 child in 100 attended school.

Education since 1951

After the 1951 revolution, efforts were made to establish an education system. The National Education Planning Commission was founded in 1954, the All Round National Education Committee in 1961, and the National Education Advisory Board in 1968 in order to implement and to refine the education system. In 1971 the New Education System came into operation as an integral part of the Fourth Five-Year Plan (1970-75); it was designed to address individual, as well as societal, needs in concert with the goals of national development.
Formal schooling in modern times was still constrained by the economy and culture. Children were generally needed to work in the fields and at home. Many students began school late (at ages nine or ten); more than half left school after completing only one year. Educating females was viewed as unnecessary; as a consequence, their enrollment levels were far lower than those of males. Regional variations often hindered the effectiveness of uniform text materials and teacher training. Although the government was relatively successful in establishing new schools, the quality of education remained low, particularly in remote regions where the majority of the population lived. Terrain further inhibited management and supervision of schools.
Most schools operated for ten months of the year, five and onehalf days a week. In the warmer regions, June and July were vacation months; in the northern regions, mid-December through midFebruary were vacation months. All schools in Kathmandu closed for winter vacation.
In 1975 primary education was made free, and the government became responsible for providing school facilities, teachers, and educational materials. Primary schooling was compulsory; it began at age six and lasted for five years. Secondary education began at age eleven and lasted another five years in two cycles--two years (lower) and three years (higher). Total school enrollment was approximately 52 percent of school-age children (approximately 70 percent of school-age boys, 30 percent of school-age girls) in 1984. Secondary school enrollment was only 18 percent of the relevant age-group (27 percent of the total boys, 9 percent of the total girls). About 72 percent of all students were male. The Ministry of Education supervised the finance, administration, staffing, and inspection of government schools. It also inspected private schools that received government subsidies.
As of 1987, Nepal had 12,491 primary schools, 3,824 lowersecondary schools, and 1,501 higher-secondary schools. There were 55,207 primary, 11,744 lower-secondary, and 8,918 higher-secondary school teachers. Primary school enrollments totaled 1,952,504 persons; lower-secondary and higher-secondary enrollment figures stood at 289,594 and 289,923 persons, respectively.
Curriculum was greatly influenced by United States models, and it was developed with assistance from the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. The National Education Plan established a framework for universal education. The goal of primary education was to teach reading, writing, and arithmetic, and to instill discipline and hygiene. Lower-secondary education emphasized character formation, a positive attitude toward manual labor, and perseverance. Higher-secondary education stressed manpower requirements and preparation for higher education. National development goals were emphasized through the curriculum.
The School Leaving Certificate examination, a nationally administered and monitored high-school-matriculation examination, was given after completion of the higher-secondary level. Those who passed this examination were eligible for college. In addition, some communities had adult education schools.
In the early 1980s, approximately 60 percent of the primary school teachers and 35 percent of secondary school teachers were untrained, despite the institution of a uniform method of training in 1951. The Institute of Education, part of Tribhuvan University, was responsible for inservice and preservice teacher training programs. Beginning in 1976, the institute organized a distancelearning program--electronic links between distant locations--for prospective teachers. Developments in telecommunications will provide new educational options.
At the higher education level, there was only one doctoral degree-granting institution in Nepal, Tribhuvan University. It was named after King Tribhuvan Bir Bikram Shah, the grandfather of King Birendra, and was chartered in 1959. All public colleges fell under Tribhuvan University. Private colleges were operated independently, although they also were required to meet the requirements and standards set by Tribhuvan University. The total number of colleges increased significantly, from 8 in 1958 to 132 in 1988 (69 under Tribhuvan University and 63 private colleges). In terms of subjects, these colleges covered a wide range of disciplines, such as social sciences; humanities; commerce (business); physical sciences, including some medical sciences; engineering; education; forestry; law; and Sanskrit. The number of students enrolled in higher education institutions totaled almost 83,000 in 1987; the largest percentage was in humanities and social sciences (40 percent), followed by commerce (31 percent), science and technology (11 percent), and education (6 percent). Approximately 20 percent of the students enrolled in Tribhuvan University were females.
The 1981 census found 24 percent of the population to be literate; as of 1990, the literacy rate was estimated to be 33 percent. There still was a big gap between male and female literacy rates. About 35 percent of the male population was literate in 1981, but only 11.5 percent of the female population was. A gulf also existed in literacy rates between rural and urban areas. In rural areas, the literacy rates for males and females were 33 percent and 9 percent, respectively; in urban areas, they were significantly higher, 62 percent and 37 percent, respectively. The higher literacy rates in urban areas were largely attributed to the availability of more and better educational opportunities, a greater awareness of the need for education for employment and socioeconomic mobility, and the exodus of educated people from rural to urban areas. Nepal launched a twelve-year literacy program in 1990, targeting 8 million people between the ages of six and forty-five.
There was little doubt among observers that the historical monopoly of educational opportunity by members of the wealthier and higher caste groups gradually was diminishing. Schools and colleges were open to all, and enrollment figures were rising rapidly. The long-standing prejudice against the education of women seemed to be very slowly breaking down, as attested to by increasing enrollments of girls in schools and colleges. Yet two distinct biases--social class and geography--remained pronounced in educational attainment.
Despite general accessibility, education still nonetheless primarily served children of landlords, businessmen, government leaders, or other elite members of the society, for they were the only ones who could easily afford to continue beyond primary school. They also were far more able to afford, and likely to continue, education beyond the high school level. Many students in the general population dropped out before they took the School Leaving Certificate examination. There was an even more important ingredient for success after leaving school: if the quality of available higher education was considered inadequate or inferior, higher caste families could afford to send their children overseas to obtain necessary degrees. Foreign educational degrees, especially those obtained from American and West European institutions, carried greater prestige than degrees from Nepal. Higher caste families also had the necessary connections to receive government scholorships to study abroad.
Further, education remained largely urban-biased. The majority of education institutions, particularly better quality institutions, were found in urban areas. In rural areas where schools were set up, the quality of instruction was inferior, facilities were very poor, and educational materials were either difficult to find or virtually unavailable. Consequently, if rural families were serious about the education of their children, they were forced to send them to urban areas, a very expensive proposition that the vast majority of rural households could not afford.
Although there has been a remarkable numerical growth in the literacy rates, as well as the number of education institutions over the years, the quality of education has not necessarily improved. There were few top-notch teachers and professors, and their morale was low. At the higher educational level, the research focus or tradition was virtually absent, largely because there were few research facilities available for professors. There were some excellent private schools, mostly located in the Kathmandu Valley, but many appeared to be merely money-making ventures rather than serious, devoted educational enterprises. The large majority of schools and colleges were run by poorly prepared and poorly trained teachers and professors. Schools and colleges frequently were closed because of strikes. Students had little respect for teachers and professors and were concerned with obtaining a certificate rather than a quality education. Cheating was rampant during examinations at all levels.

RELIGION

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Religion and Society

Religion occupies an integral position in Nepalese life and society. In the early 1990s, Nepal was the only constitutionally declared Hindu state in the world; there was, however, a great deal of intermingling of Hindu and Buddhist beliefs. Many of the people regarded as Hindus in the 1981 census could, with as much justification, be called Buddhists. The fact that Hindus worshipped at Buddhist temples and Buddhists worshipped at Hindu temples has been one of the principal reasons adherents of the two dominant groups in Nepal have never engaged in any overt religious conflicts. Because of such dual faith practices (or mutual respect), the differences between Hindus and Buddhists have been in general very subtle and academic in nature. However, in 1991, approximately 89.5 percent of the Nepalese people identified themselves as Hindus. Buddhists and Muslims comprised only 5.3 and 2.7 percent, respectively. The remainder followed other religions, including Christianity.

The geographical distribution of religious groups revealed a preponderance of Hindus, accounting for at least 87 percent of the population in every region. The largest concentrations of Buddhists were found in the eastern hills, the Kathmandu Valley, and the central Tarai; in each area about 10 percent of the people were Buddhist. Buddhism was relatively more common among the Newar and Tibeto-Nepalese groups. Among the Tibeto-Nepalese, those most influenced by Hinduism were the Magar, Sunwar, and Rai peoples. Hindu influence was less prominent among the Gurung, Limbu, Bhote, and Thakali groups, who continued to employ Buddhist monks for their religious ceremonies.

Hinduism

Hinduism generally is regarded as the oldest formal religion in the world. The origins of Hinduism go back to the pastoral Aryan tribes, spilling over the Hindu Kush from Inner Asia, and mixing with the urban civilization of the Indus Valley and with the tribal cultures of hunting and gathering peoples in the area. Unlike other world religions, Hinduism had no single founder and has never been missionary in orientation. It is believed that about 1200 B.C., or even earlier by some accounts, the Vedas, a body of hymns originating in northern India were produced; these texts form the theological and philosophical precepts of Hinduism.

Hindus believe that the absolute (the totality of existence, including God, man, and universe) is too vast to be contained within a single set of beliefs. A highly diverse and complex religion, Hinduism embraces six philosophical doctrines (darshanas). From these doctrines, individuals select one that is congenial, or conduct their worship simply on a convenient level of morality and observance. Religious practices differ from group to group. The average Hindu does not need any systematic formal creed in order to practice his or her religion Hindus only to comply with the customs of their family and social groups.

One basic concept in Hinduism is that of dharma, natural law and the social and religious obligations it imposes. It holds that individuals should play their proper role in society as determined or prescribed by their dharma. The caste system, although not essential to philosophical Hinduism, has become an integral part of its social or dharmic expression. Under this system, each person is born into a particular caste, whose traditional occupation-- although members do not necessarily practice it--is graded according to the degree of purity and impurity inherent in it.

Other fundamental ideas common to all Hindus concern the nature and destiny of the soul, and the basic forces of the universe. The souls of human beings are seen as separated portions of an allembracing world soul (brahma); man's ultimate goal is reunion with this absolute.

Karma (universal justice) is the belief that the consequence of every good or bad action must be fully realized. Another basic concept is that of samsara, the transmigration of souls; rebirth is required by karma in order that the consequences of action be fulfilled. The role an individual must play throughout his or her life is fixed by his or her good and evil actions in previous existences. It is only when the individual soul sees beyond the veil of maya (illusion or earthly desires)--the forces leading to belief in the appearances of things--that it is able to realize its identity with the impersonal, transcendental reality (world soul) and to escape from the otherwise endless cycle of rebirth to be absorbed into the world soul. This release is known as moksha.

Veneration for the cow has come to be intimately associated with all orthodox Hindu sects. Because the cow is regarded as the symbol of motherhood and fruitfulness, the killing of a cow, even accidentally, is regarded as one of the most serious of religious transgressions.

Hinduism is polytheistic. It incorporates many gods and goddesses with different functions and powers; but in the most important and widely held doctrine, the Vedanta (end of the Vedas), gods and goddesses are considered merely different manifestations or aspects of a single underlying divinity. This single divinity is expressed as a Hindu triad comprising the religion's three major gods: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, personifying creation, preservation, and destruction, respectively. Vishnu and Shiva, or some of their numerous avatars (incarnations), are most widely followed.

Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, is regarded as the ninth avatar of Vishnu. Some Hindus identify Christ as the tenth avatar; others regard Kalki as the final avatar who is yet to come. These avatars are believed to descend upon earth to restore peace, order, and justice, or to save humanity from injustice. The Mahabharata (compiled by the sage Vyasa, probably before A.D. 400), describes the great civil war between the Pandavas (the good) and the Kauravas (the bad)--two factions of the same clan. It is believed that the war was created by Krishna. Perhaps the flashiest and craftiest avatar of Vishnu, Krishna, as a part of his lila (sport or act), is believed motivated to restore justice--the good over the bad.

Buddhism

Buddhism had its origin in the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, a Kshatriya caste prince of the Sakya clan; he was born in Lumbini, in the central Tarai Region, about 563 B.C. His father was the ruler of a minor principality in the region. Born a Hindu and educated in the Hindu tradition, Siddhartha Gautama renounced worldly life at about the age of twenty-nine and spent the next six years in meditation. At the end of this time, he attained enlightenment; thereafter, known as the Buddha, or the Enlightened One, he devoted the remainder of his life to preaching his doctrine.

The Buddha accepted or reinterpreted the basic concepts of Hinduism, such as karma, samsara, dharma, and moksha, but he generally refused to commit himself to specific metaphysical theories. He said they were essentially irrelevant to his teachings and could only distract attention from them. He was interested in restoring a concern with morality to religious life, which he believed had become stifled in details of ritual, external observances, and legalisms.

The Four Noble Truths summarize the Buddha's analysis of the human situation and the solution he found for the problems of life. The first truth is that life, in a world of unceasing change, is inherently imperfect and sorrowful, and that misery is not merely a result of occasional frustration of desire or misfortune, but is a quality permeating all experience. The second truth is that the cause of sorrow is desire, the emotional involvement with existence that led from rebirth to rebirth through the operation of karma. The third truth is that the sorrow can be ended by eliminating desire. The fourth truth sets forth the Eightfold Path leading to elimination of desire, rebirth, and sorrow, and to the attainment of nirvana or nibbana, a state of bliss and selfless enlightment. It rejoins right or perfect understanding, aspiration, speech, action, livelihood, effort, thought, and contemplation.

SOCIAL SYSTEM AND VALUES

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SOCIAL SYSTEM AND VALUES

In the mid-twentieth century, Nepal remained gripped in a feudalistic socioeconomic structure despite the influence of Western popular culture, growing commercialization, and some penetration of capitalism. The first challenge to this feudalistic power structure came in 1950-51, when the Rana autocracy was overthrown by the popular democratic movement that restored the authority of the monarchy.

There was no popularly elected government until 1959. During his reign, King Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev frequently changed the government, pitting one ruling clan against another in a manner clearly reminiscent of Shah politics prior to the rise of Rana rule. He also reconstituted the system of palace patronage, replacing the system of Rana patronage. The Ranas, however, firmly controlled the armed forces.

In December 1960, King Mahendra launched a palace coup against the popularly elected government of Prime Minister Bishweshwar Prasad (B.P.) Koirala and reestablished his absolute monarchical rule under the banner of the partyless panchayat system. Until early 1990, the panchayat system, strictly controlled by the palace, remained firmly in place. The transition to a new social order was stymied; society remained entrenched in a feudalistic structure.

There was, however, a tide of Western popular culture and commercialization sweeping over Nepal. In the 1960s and 1970s, many Westerners, so-called hippies, were attracted to Nepal, looking for inexpensive marijuana and hashish. Nepal suddenly emerged as a "hippie Shangri-la." There were no laws or legal restrictions on the sale and purchase of such drugs, and they could be used openly. In fact, some Westerners thought the Nepalese were generally happy and content because they were always high. Although this view was a distortion, nonetheless it was very common to see elderly Nepalese men smoking marijuana, invariably mixed with tobacco, in public. Marijuana plants grew almost everywhere; sometimes they were found growing even along main streets. Locally produced hashish also was widely consumed, particularly during festivals celebrated by some ethnic groups and tribes. It was, however, very unusual for a Nepalese to develop a marijuana or hashish habit until reaching about forty years of age.

By the late 1980s, the situation had changed dramatically. There was an emerging drug subculture in the urban areas, and a number of youths, including college and high school students, sold and consumed drugs. Many of these youths had gone beyond using marijuana and hashish to more potent drugs, such as "crack" and cocaine--drugs unheard of in the past. In the 1960s, Westerners had sought release from the overbearing materialism of developed countries; they copied the Nepalese (and other Easterners) who smoked marijuana and hashish. Ironically, in the 1980s and 1990s, it was Nepalese youths who were enchanted by the North American material and drug culture. There were an estimated 20,000 heroin addicts in 1989. In response to the drug situation in the country, in the late 1980s the government initiated antinarcotics measures and narcotics training, and King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev directed extensive media attention to narcotics abuse. The effectiveness of the battle against narcotics, however, was limited by the lack of an official government body to target drug abuse.

Rural Society and Kinship

Nepal in the early 1990s was predominantly a rural-agricultural society, where more than 90 percent of the people lived in rural areas and depended on farming as a source of livelihood. Even in settlements designated as urban areas, the rural-urban distinction easily was blurred; approximately 50 percent of urbanites outside the three cities in the Kathmandu Valley were engaged in farming for their livelihood. Even in the Kathmandu Valley cities, 30 to 40 percent of city dwellers were agriculturalists. In this sense, most urban areas were economic extensions of rural areas, but with an urban manifestation and a commercial component. Farming was the dominant order of society and the mainstay of the economy, a situation that was unlikely to change, given the extremely sluggish pace of economic transformation.

The basic social unit in a village was the family, or paribar, consisting of a patrilineally extended household. The extended family system should not, however, be construed as a necessarily harmonious form of village life. Many extended families broke apart as sons separated from parents and brothers from each other. At the time of separation, the family property was equally divided among the sons. If parents were alive, they each received a share. Family separation generally occurred in cases where the head of the household was less assertive and domineering, when the father died, or when all the sons married. Unmarried sons normally did not separate from their parents; if the parents were deceased, unmarried sons usually stayed with their older brothers. Because family separation always resulted in a division of family landholdings, landholdings were extremely fragmented, both geographically and socially. Sometimes, family separation and resulting land fragmentation turned into a bitter feud and led to legal disputes.

Beyond the immediate family, there existed a larger kinship network that occasionally involved sharing food. This network also was an important means of meeting farm labor needs, especially during the planting and harvesting seasons, when labor shortages were common.

Above the kinship network was the village, which functioned as a broader unit of social existence. Some villages were no more than hamlets made up of just a few houses; others were sizable communities of several neighboring hamlets. In more populous villages, the caste groups contained occupational low (untouchable) caste groups, such as the Kami (ironsmiths who make tools), the Sarki (leathersmiths), and the Damai (tailors and musicians), who fulfilled the vital basic needs of the village as a fairly selfcontained production unit.

Villagers occasionally pooled their resources and labored together to implement village-level projects, such as building irrigation ditches or channels, or facilities for drinking water. If a household could afford to hire farm labor, it usually relied on the mutual labor-sharing system called parma, which allowed villagers to exchange labor for labor at times of need.

Although farming traditionally ranked among the most desirable occupations, villagers frequently encouraged some of their children to leave in search of civil service, army, and other employment opportunities. Individual migration was often the result of a family decision and an important economic strategy; it not only served as a safety valve for growing population pressures but also generated cash incomes, thereby averting any undue economic crises in the family. Well-to-do village families usually pushed their children to obtain civil service jobs as a means of climbing the bureaucratic ladder and of developing valuable connections with the elite political structure.

Farming was the most important source of livelihood in rural areas, but the scarcity of land placed severe constraints on agricultural development. Landholding was the most important basis for, or criterion of, socioeconomic stratification. The 1981 agricultural census data identifies five classes of peasantry: landless and nearly landless, people with no land or less than half a hectare; subsistence, those with half a hectare to one hectare; small, holders of one to three hectares; medium, people with three to five hectares; and large, farmers of more than five hectares.

In terms of production relations, the first two classes were dependent on large landowners for survival. Small landowners, on the other hand, were relatively independent; they did not have to depend on the large landowning class for survival, especially if they were involved in circular migration as a source of supplementary cash income. Nor did they regularly employ members of the first two classes. Landowners of medium-sized plots were independent of large landowners. Their engagement in wage laboring or tenancy farming was sporadic, if present at all. In some cases, they employed others during peak farming seasons. The large landowning class regularly employed farm workers and benefited from the existence of excess labor, which kept wages low. In general, the situation of landholders was exacerbated by the archaic nature of farming technology and the absence of other resources. It was not surprising that rural poverty was widespread.

Women's Status and Role in Society

The United Nations has defined the status of women in the context of their access to knowledge, economic resources, and political power, as well as their personal autonomy in the process of decision making. When Nepalese women's status is analyzed in this light, the picture is generally bleak. In the early 1990s, Nepal was a rigidly patriarchical society. In virtually every aspect of life, women were generally subordinate to men.

Women's relative status, however, varied from one ethnic group to another. The status of women in Tibeto-Nepalese communities generally, was relatively better than that of Pahari and Newari women. Women from the low caste groups also enjoyed relatively more autonomy and freedom than Pahari and Newari women.

The senior female member played a commanding role within the family by controlling resources, making crucial planting and harvesting decisions, and determining the expenses and budget allocations. Yet women's lives remained centered on their traditional roles--taking care of most household chores, fetching water and animal fodder, and doing farm work. Their standing in society was mostly contingent on their husbands' and parents' social and economic positions. They had limited access to markets, productive services, education, health care, and local government. Malnutrition and poverty hit women hardest. Female children usually were given less food than male children, especially when the family experienced food shortages. Women usually worked harder and longer than men. By contrast, women from high-class families had maids to take care of most household chores and other menial work and thus worked far less than men or women in lower socioeconomic groups.

The economic contribution of women was substantial, but largely unnoticed because their traditional role was taken for granted. When employed, their wages normally were 25 percent less than those paid to men. In most rural areas, their employment outside the household generally was limited to planting, weeding, and harvesting. In urban areas, they were employed in domestic and traditional jobs, as well as in the government sector, mostly in low-level positions.

One tangible measure of women's status was their educational attainment. Although the constitution offers women equal educational opportunities, many social, economic, and cultural factors contributed to lower enrollment and higher dropout rates for girls. Illiteracy imposed the greatest hindrance to enhancing equal opportunity and status for women. They were caught in a vicious circle imposed by the patriarchical society. Their lower status hindered their education, and the lack of education, in turn, constricted their status and position. Although the female literacy rate has improved noticeably over the years, the level in the early 1990s fell far short of the male level.

The level of educational attainment among female children of wealthy and educated families was much higher than that among female children of poor families. This class disparity in educational attainment was also true for boys. In Nepal, as in many societies, education was heavily class-biased.

In the early 1990s, a direct correlation existed between the level of education and status. Educated women had access to relatively high-status positions in the government and private service sectors, and they had a much higher status than uneducated women. This general rule was more applicable at the societal level than at the household level. Within the family, an educated woman did not necessarily hold a higher status than her uneducated counterpart. Also within the family, a woman's status, especially a daughter-in-law's status, was more closely tied to her husband's authority and to her parental family's wealth and status than anything else.

Social Classes and Stratification

In terms of differences in wealth and access to political power, Nepalese society could be divided into a small ruling elite; a growing, intermediate-sized group of government officials, large landholders, and merchants; and the vast majority of the population, consisting of a peasant base. These divisions are descriptive, functional class categories rather than social class entities based on the Marxian concept of the social relations of production. In a way, all three classes were a long continuum in Nepal's social structure because most members of the ruling elite and government functionaries had their direct roots in the rural landed class, which was one stratum of the farming population.

Even though the agricultural sector as a whole faced similar economic and technological circumstances, it was diverse and contained several strata in landholding, relative economic dependence, and independence. The numerically small intermediate stratum of the farmers was only slightly less diverse than the rest of the rural population in terms of members' ethnic and geographical backgrounds. The relative economic and educational advantages of this group and its occupational activities, however, made its members relatively homogeneous in terms of shared interest. They generally aspired to achieve a middle- or elite-class status.

The smallest and least diverse of the three categories was the ruling elite, largely composed of high-caste, educated Paharis, namely different strata of Brahmans and Chhetris. At the zenith of this class was the monarch, whose authority was derived from the orthodox Hindu contention that the king was the reincarnation of Vishnu, whose assigned role in the Hindu trinity is protection. The monarch's authority was not based on electoral support.

The continued expansion of the bureaucracy was a direct response to a consistent increase in the educated population. Because of the lack of development, a large number of educated people failed to find gainful employment upon graduation. Because they constituted the most potent revolutionary force, and happened to be geographically concentrated in urban centers, the ruling class was almost compelled to absorb them into an already bloated bureaucracy in order to neutralize any sociopolitical disturbance they might cause.

In the 1980s, a significant number of college- and universityeducated people residing in Kathmandu Valley cities discovered a second employment outlet. Development consultant firms and associated services have emerged throughout Kathmandu. Because of the growing pressure on foreign donors to hire Nepalese consultants for development feasibility and evaluation projects, these firms were able to tap into the large pool of foreign aid money and have generated a significant number of jobs. This opportunity has allowed many of the more educated to attain middle class status.

Caste and Ethnicity

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Ethnic Groups

Nepalese society was ethnically diverse and complex in the early 1990s, ranging in phenotype (physical characteristics) and culture from the Indian to the Tibetan. Except for the sizable population of those of Indian birth or ancestry concentrated in the Tarai bordering India, the varied ethnic groups had evolved into distinct patterns over time.

Political scientists Joshi and Rose broadly classify the Nepalese population into three major ethnic groups in terms of their origin: Indo-Nepalese, Tibeto-Nepalese, and indigenous Nepalese. In the case of the first two groups, the direction if their migration and Nepal's landscapes appeared to have led to their vertical distribution; most ethnic groups were found at particular altitudes. The first group, comprising those of Indo- Nepalese origin, inhabited the more fertile lower hills, river valleys, and Tarai plains. The second major group consisted of communities of Tibeto-Mongol origin occupying the higher hills from the west to the east. The third and much smaller group comprised a number of tribal communities, such as the Tharus and the Dhimals of the Tarai; they may be remnants of indigenous communities whose habitation predates the advent of Indo-Nepalese and Tibeto-Mongol elements.

Even though Indo-Nepalese migrants were latecomers to Nepal relative to the migrants from the north, they have come to dominate the country not only numerically, but also socially, politically, and economically. They managed to achieve early dominance over the native and northern migrant populations, largely because of the superior formal educational and technological systems they brought with them. Consequently, their overall domination has had tremendous significance in terms of ethnic power structure.

Within the Indo-Nepalese group, at least two distinct categories can be discerned. The first category includes those who fled India and moved to the safe sanctuaries of the Nepal hills several hundred years ago, in the wake of the Muslim invasions of northern India. The hill group of Indian origin primarily was composed of descendants of high-caste Hindu families. According to Joshi and Rose, "These families, mostly of Brahman and Kshatriya status, have spread through the whole of Nepal with the exception of the areas immediately adjacent to the northern border. They usually constitute a significant portion of the local elites and are frequently the largest landowners in an area." This segment of the Indo-Nepalese population, at the apex of which stands the nation's royal family, has played the most dominant role in the country. Other ethnic groups, including those of Indian origin that settled in the Tarai, have been peripheral to the political power structure.

The second group of Indo-Nepalese migrants includes the inhabitants of the Tarai. Many of them are relatively recent migrants, who were encouraged by the government of Nepal or its agents to move into the Tarai for settlement during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In the early 1990s, this group mostly consisted of landless tenants and peasants from northern India's border states of Bihar and Bengal. Some of these Indian migrants later became large landowners.

The north Indian antecedents of a number of caste groups in the hills (that is, the first group of Indo-Nepalese migrants), which, in the early 1990s, made up more than 50 percent of the total population, are evident in their language, religion, social organization, and physical appearance. All of these features, however, have been modified in the Nepalese environment. These groups--several castes of Brahmans, the high-ranking Thakuri and Chhetri (the Nepalese derivative of the Kshatriya) castes, and an untouchable category--generally are classified as Pahari, or Parbate. However, in most parts of Nepal (except in the Tarai), the term pahari has only a limited use in that the Paharis generally are known by their individual caste names.

Nepali, the native tongue of the Paharis and the national language of Nepal, is closely related to, but by no means identical with, Hindi. Both are rooted in Sanskrit. The Hinduism of the Pahari has been influenced by Buddhism and indigenous folk belief. The Paharis' caste system was neither as elaborately graded nor as all embracing in its sanctions as that of the Indians; physically, many of the Paharis showed the results of racial intermixture with the various Mongoloid groups of the region. Similarly, the Bhote or Bhotia groups inhabiting the foothills of the Himalayas--among whom the Sherpas have attracted the most attention in the mountaineering world--have developed regional distinctions among themselves, although clearly related physically as well as culturally to the Tibetans. The term Bhote literally means inhabitant of Bhot, a Sanskrit term for the trans-Himalayan region of Nepal, or the Tibetan region. However, Bhote is also a generic term, often applied to people of Tibetan culture or Mongoloid phenotype. As used by the Paharis and the Newars, it often had a pejorative connotation and could be applied to any non-Hindu of Mongoloid appearance.

An extraordinarily complex terrain also affected the geographic distribution and interaction among various ethnic groups. Within the general latitudinal sorting of Indo-Nepalese (lower hills) and Tibeto-Nepalese (higher hills and mountains) groups, there was a lateral (longitudinal) pattern, in which various ethnic populations were concentrated in specific geographic pockets. The deeply cut valleys and high ridges tended to divide ethnic groups into many small, relatively isolated, and more or less self- contained communities. This pattern was especially prominent among the Tibeto-Nepalese population. For example, the Bhote group was found in the far north, trans-Himalayan section of the Mountain Region, close to the Tibetan border. The Sherpas, a subgroup within the Bhote, were concentrated in the northeast, around the Mount Everest area. To the south of their areas were other Tibeto- Nepalese ethnic groups--the Gurung in the west-central hills and the Tamang and Rai in the east-central hills--particularly close to and east of the Kathmandu Valley. The Magar group, found largely in the central hills, was much more widely distributed than the Gurung, Tamang, and Rai. In the areas occupied by the Limbu and Rai peoples, the Limbu domain was located farther east in the hills, just beyond the Rai zone. The Tharu group was found in the Tarai, and the Paharis were scattered throughout Nepal. Newars largely were concentrated in the Kathmandu Valley. However, because of their past migration as traders and merchants, they also were found in virtually all the market centers, especially in the hills, and as far away as Lhasa in Tibet.

This geographically concentrated ethnic distribution pattern generally remained in effect in the early 1990s, despite a trend toward increasing spatial mobility and relocating ethnic populations. For example, a large number of Bhotes (also called Mananges from the Manang District) in the central section of the Mountain Region, Tamangs, and Sherpas have moved to the Kathmandu Valley. Similarly, Thakalis from the Mustang District adjacent to Manang have moved to Pokhara, a major urban center in the hills about 160 kilometers west of Kathmandu, and to Butawal and Siddhartha Nagar, two important urban areas in the central part of the Tarai, directly south of Pokhara. Gurungs, Magars, and Rais also have become increasingly dispersed.

Most of the Indo-Nepalese peoples--both Paharis and Tarai dwellers (commonly known among the Paharis as madhesis, meaning midlanders)--were primarily agriculturalists, although a majority of them also relied on other activities to produce supplementary income. They generally raised some farm animals, particularly water buffalo, cows, goats, and sheep, for domestic purposes. The Paharis traditionally have occupied the vast majority of civil service positions. As a result, they have managed to dominate and to control Nepal's bureaucracy to their advantage. It was not until the 1980s that a prime minister came from the non- Pahari segment of the population. Despite some loosening of the total Pahari domination of the bureaucracy in recent years, a 1991 newspaper report, summarized in the Nepal Press Digest, revealed that 80 percent of the posts in the civil service, the army, and the police still were held by the Brahmans and Chhetris of the hills, who comprised less than 50 percent of the population; 13 percent were held by Kathmandu Valley Newars, whose share of the total population was merely 3 percent. The report added that even in 1991, the eleven-member Council of Ministers in 1991 had six Brahmans and three Newars. Furthermore, six of the nine-member Constitution Recommendation Commission, which drafted the new constitution in 1990, were hill Brahmans. In spite of the increasing number of Newars holding government jobs, they traditionally were recognized as a commercial merchant and handicraft class. It was no exaggeration that they historically have been the prime agents of Nepalese culture and art. A significant number of them also were engaged in farming. In that sense, they can be described as agro-commercialists.

Most of the Tibeto-Nepalese groups traditionally could be considered agro-pastoralists. Because their physical environment offered only limited land and agricultural possibilities, the Tibeto-Nepalese groups who occupied the high mountainous areas, such as the Bhote and particularly the Sherpa, were almost forced to rely more on herding and pastoral activities than on crop farming. They also participated in seasonal trading activity to supplement their income and food supply. However, those peoples inhabiting the medium and low hills south of the high mountains-- particularly the Gurung, Magar, Tamang, Rai, and Limbu groups-- depended on farming and herding in relatively equal amounts because their environment was relatively more suitable for agriculture. Among these groups, the Gurung, Magar, and Rai historically have supplied the bulk of the famous Gurkha contingents to the British and Indian armies, although their ranks have been augmented from the Thakuri and Chhetri castes of the Indo-Nepalese Paharis. The term Gurkha was derived from the name of the former principality of Gorkha, about seventy kilometers west of Kathmandu, and was not an ethnic designation.

The Caste System

One integral aspect of Nepalese society is the existence of the Hindu caste system, modeled after the ancient and orthodox Brahmanic system of the Indian plains. The caste system did not exist prior to the arrival of Indo-Aryans. Its establishment became the basis of the emergence of the feudalistic economic structure of Nepal: the high-caste Hindus began to appropriate lands-- particularly lowlands that were more easily accessible, more cultivatable, and more productive--including those belonging to the existing tribal people, and introduced the system of individual ownership. Even though the cultural and religious rigidity of the caste system slowly has been eroding, its introduction into Nepal was one of the most significant influences stemming from the migration of the Indo-Aryan people into the hills. The migrants from the north later were incorporated into the Hindu caste system, as defined by Indo-Aryan migrants, who quickly controlled the positions of power and authority. Tibetan migrants did not practice private ownership; their system was based on communal ownership.

No single, widely acceptable definition can be advanced for the caste system. Bishop and others, however, view caste as a multifaceted status hierarchy composed of all members of society, with each individual ranked within the broad, fourfold Hindu class (varna, or color) divisions, or within the fifth class of untouchables--outcastes and the socially polluted. The fourfold caste divisions are Brahman (priests and scholars), Kshatriya or Chhetri (rulers and warriors), Vaisya (or Vaisaya, merchants and traders), and Sudra (farmers, artisans, and laborers). These Pahari caste divisions based on the Hindu system are not strictly upheld by the Newars. They have their own caste hierarchy, which, they claim, is parallel in caste divisions to the Pahari Hindu system. In each system, each caste (jati) is ideally an endogamous group in which membership is both hereditary and permanent. The only way to change caste status is to undergo Sanskritization. Sanskritization can be achieved by migrating to a new area and by changing one's caste status and/or marrying across the caste line, which can lead to the upgrading or downgrading of caste, depending on the spouse's caste. However, given the rigidity of the caste system, intercaste marriage carries a social stigma, especially when it takes place between two castes at the extreme ends of the social spectrum.

As Bishop further asserts, at the core of the caste structure is a rank order of values bound up in concepts of ritual status, purity, and pollution. Furthermore, caste determines an individual's behavior, obligations, and expectations. All the social, economic, religious, legal, and political activities of a caste society are prescribed by sanctions that determine and limit access to land, position of political power, and command of human labor. Within such a constrictive system, wealth, political power, high rank, and privilege converge; hereditary occupational specialization is a common feature. Nevertheless, caste is functionally significant only when viewed in a regional or local context and at a particular time. The assumed correlation between the caste hierarchy and the socioeconomic class hierarchy does not always hold. Because of numerous institutional changes over the years and increased dilution (or expansion) of the caste hierarchy stemming from intercaste marriages, many poor high-caste and rich low-caste households could be found in the society in 1991.

Although Paharis, especially those in rural areas, were generally quite conscious of their caste status, the question of caste did not usually arise for Tibeto-Nepalese communities unless they were aware of the Hindu caste status arbitrarily assigned to them. Insofar as they accepted caste-based notions of social rank, the Tibeto-Nepalese tended not only to see themselves at a higher level than did the Hindu Pahari and Newar, but also differed as to ranking among themselves. Thus, it was doubtful that the reported Rai caste's assumption of rank superiority over the Magar and Gurung castes was accepted by the two latter groups. Moreover, the status of a particular group was apt to vary from place to place, depending on its relative demographic size, wealth, and local power.

Language

Even though Nepali (written in Devanagari script, the same as Sanskrit and Hindi) was the national language and was mentioned as the mother tongue by approximately 58 percent of the population, there were several other languages and dialects. Other languages included Maithili, Bhojpuri, Tharu, Tamang, Newari, and Abadhi. Non-Nepali languages and dialects rarely were spoken outside their ethnic enclaves. In order to estimate the numerical distribution of different ethnic groups, the census data indicating various mother tongues spoken in the country must be used.

In terms of linguistic roots, Nepali, Maithili, and Bhojpuri belonged to the Indo-European family; the mother tongues of the Tibeto-Nepalese groups, including Newari, belonged predominantly to the Tibeto-Burman family. The Pahari, whose mother tongue was Nepali, was the largest ethnic group. If the Maithili- and Bhojpuri-speaking populations of the Tarai were included, more than 75 percent of the population belonged to the Indo-Nepalese ethnic group. Only three other ethnic groups--the Tamang, the Tharu, and the Newar--approached or slightly exceeded the one-half million population mark. Most of those non-Nepali linguistic and ethnic population groups were closely knit by bonds of nationalism and cultural harmony, and they were concentrated in certain areas.

Migration

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Migration

Nepal was once a sanctuary for waves of migrants from north and south of its borders. The early migration from the north was largely of nomadic Mongoloid people from Tibet (the Bhote groups), followed by waves of Indo-Aryans from India. Some of the migrants from the south, especially the Brahmans and Rajputs, were fleeing the religious crusades of invading Mughals (or Indian Muslims) and their suppression of Hindus; others (especially those from Bihar and West Bengal), were lured by the possibilities of the Tarai land. As of 1991, a large number of Indians from Bihar and other neighboring areas still crossed the border into Nepal. Most of those recent migrants were found in towns and cities, where they were engaged in semiskilled labor and mercantile activities.

Since at least the late nineteenth century, the migration trend has reversed its course. In the early 1990s, there was a massive and persistent outflow of people from the hills, the areas that once served as a refuge for migrants. In addition, the volume of migration has been increasing over time. There have been two major types of migration. Permanent or lifetime migration occurred primarily within the national boundary, particularly from the highlands to the Tarai Region; it was motivated by the search for land. Circular migration included seasonal migrants, who moved to wage-labor sites, such as urban centers and construction areas, during the agricultural slack season (November to February). These circular or absentee migrants included long-term (but not permanent) migrants, who moved in search of long-term salaried employment, such as army, government, chaukidar (doorman or guard) services, or factory jobs. Once these migrants succeeded in landing a relatively permanent job, they normally visited their families and villages once every two to three years; if they did not secure such a job, they might return in a few months. Unlike permanent migration, circular migration was both internal (within the country) as well as external (outside the country). Although internal circular migrants ultimately might become permanent migrants, the vast majority of external circular migrants, most of whom went to India, returned to Nepal upon their retirement and discharge from service. Increasing numbers of these external migrants settled in the Indian states of West Bengal and Assam, and they have been filtering into Bhutan since the late nineteenth century.

Lifetime Regional Migration

Until the mid-1950s, the volume of permanent migration within the country was very small. Since then, however, there has been increased permanent internal migration, mainly because of population pressures, paucity of land resources in the hills, and the implementation of land resettlement programs in the Tarai Region. This form of migration was identified in the 1981 census as lifetime internal migration.

The total volume of lifetime internal migration in 1981 was close to 1,272,300 persons, a figure that represented 8.5 percent of the total population. The vast majority of lifetime internal migrants originated in the Hill and Mountain regions and moved to the Tarai Region in search of land in a movement that can be called frontier migration. These findings confirmed that the north-south (highland-lowland) flows of migration have made a substantial contribution--both directly and indirectly--to the rapid population growth of the Tarai Region.

One of the major variables responsible for this trend was the Hill residents' quest for land. About half of the male Hill migrants to the Tarai mentioned "agriculture" as their reason for migrating. The "not stated and others" category also constituted a high percentage, probably because most family members who moved with their parents or household heads had no specific reason for their migration.

A high score for trade and commerce among the mountain migrants might reflect the fact that they historically were deeply engaged in interregional as well as cross-border trade with Tibet as their principal economic activity. Because their traditional trade and commercial relations with Tibet had been largely cut off because of political changes after 1950, they might have moved to the Tarai, where such opportunities were expanding, particularly in urban areas.

The pattern for female migrants was generally consistent with the pattern for male migrants. The exception was female migrants for whom marriage as a reason for geographical mobility ranked quite high. This pattern generally reflected the commonly observed reality that female mobility in Nepal was largely tied to family mobility (that is, husbands or parents). Although individual (unmarried) female migration seemed to be gradually on the rise, it still was quite limited.

Circular Migration

Circular migrants, both internal and external, were classified as absentee population in the 1981 census. The major difference between the two groups was that the internal absentee population generally consisted of short-term or seasonal migrants. Such migrants left the hills in search of temporary jobs in nearby towns or at construction sites and generally returned to their villages after the winter season to resume farming. On the other hand, the external absentee population was largely composed of long-term migrants. In the cases of both types, most migrants were adult males although some husbands periodically took their wives with them after they were well established in their jobs.

The volume of circular migration, or absentee population, has been rising. In the mid-1950s, such migration totaled almost 217,000 persons, most coming from the hills. More than 90 percent, or more than 198,000 people, were external migrants; the vast majority went to India. In 1981 the absentee population totaled almost 591,000 people. Of these, 188,000 people, or 32 percent, were internal migrants, and approximately 403,000 people, or 68 percent, were external migrants. Even though the percentage of external migrants in the total absentee population had declined from 90 percent in the mid-1950s to 68 percent in 1981, their absolute number had increased by 205,000 people. Whereas the increasing number of absentee population from the hills was an unmistakable indicator of the region's deteriorating economic and environmental conditions, the decreasing percentage of external migration in the total volume was largely the result of the emergence of the Tarai as an alternative, internal destination.

The vast majority of migrants came from the Hill and Mountain regions. Together, they made up 141,200 (85 percent) of the total of internal migrants and about 365,000 (91 percent) of total external migrants. Unlike in the Hill and Mountain regions, the majority of the Tarai's 82,650 absentees were found within the country.

An analysis of reasons for absence from home revealed quite a contrast between lifetime internal migration and circular migration. Service, which included a variety of jobs, surfaced as the most dominant reason for being absent from home in both internal and external cases of circular migration. On the average, 64 percent of external migrants mentioned service as their reason for migration, the highest rate being posted by the Hill migrants; 28 percent gave no reasons, or other reasons.

Urbanization

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Urbanization
Urbanization, defined as the percentage of total population living in settlements designated as urban areas, generally was viewed as closely related to economic development. If the correlation between urbanization and economic development-- historically based on the experience of the industrialized nations- -is accepted, then Nepal has a long way to go before it becomes economically advanced. Nepal was one of the least urbanized countries in the world, with only 6.3 percent of its total population residing in urban areas in 1981. Yet it appears that the 1971-81 decade experienced a major spurt in urban population, increasing by approximately 108 percent, at an annual rate of more than 8.4 percent. The urbanization rate in the early 1990s was around 8 percent. Nevertheless, only twenty-three settlements were designated as urban areas, and only one of these settlements had a population above 100,000--the capital city of Kathmandu, which had a total population of slightly more than 235,000. Together with the other two major urban settlements--Patan (also called Lalitpur), which had about 79,800 people, and Bhadgaon (also called Bhaktapur), with about 48,500 people--the Kathmandu Valley in the Hill Region had the largest concentration of the total urban population--almost 40 percent.

In terms of the regional distribution of these urban settlements, the pattern was skewed in favor of the Tarai. Fourteen of the twenty-three settlements were found there, the majority located in eastern and central Tarai. The Mountain Region had no urban settlements. This situation clearly demonstrated that Nepal not only remained predominantly rural, but also that the existing urban areas were neither well developed nor well connected in terms of their geographical distribution. The only real urban network was found in the central section--the quadrangle consisting of Kathmandu, Pokhara, Butawal (and Siddhartha Nagar), and Hetauda.

POPULATION

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POPULATION

Population Structure and Settlement Patterns

At the time of the 1981 census, the total population of Nepal was 15,022,839, the average family was made up of 5.8 persons, and life expectancy at birth was close to fifty years. As of July 1990, the population was estimated at 19,145,800 persons. The annual population growth rate increased from less than 2 percent during the 1950s to more than 2.6 percent in 1990, suggesting that despite a trend toward increasing acceptance of family planning, the program did not have much influence on reducing the population growth rate. The Central Bureau of Statistics forecast that the total population would increase to 23.6 million by 2001.

The 1981 census reveals a significant variation in regional growth rates. Although the Tarai Region's annual growth rate of 4.2 percent was much higher than the national average, the Hill and Mountain regions, respectively, posted growth rates of 1.7 and 1.4 percent. In terms of regional distribution, 43.6 percent (6,556,828 persons) of the country's population resided in the Tarai, whereas the shares of the Hill and Mountain regions totaled 7,163,115 (47.7 percent) and 1,302,896 (8.7 percent), respectively.

About 70 percent of the total population was of working age, or between the ages of fifteen and fifty-nine years. More than 65 percent of this segment of the population was considered economically active in 1981. In terms of employment structure, more than 91 percent of the economically active population was engaged in agriculture and allied activities, and the rest in the secondary (industrial) and tertiary (service) sectors, including government employment. In 1981 males and females who were widowed or separated constituted only a tiny fragment of the population--0.4 percent for each sex.

Dependency and Sex Ratios

The dependency ratio is defined as the ratio of the population in the birth to fourteen age-group, and those sixty years and older to the population in the productive age-group, that is, fifteen to fifty-nine years of age. In 1981 this ratio stood at eighty to nine. The temporal increase in the number of those in the young population group has depressed the median age of the population from 21.1 years in the mid-1950s to 19.9 years in 1981. The sex ratio in 1981, defined as the number of males to 100 females, was 105 males to every 100 females.

Fertility and Mortality

According to the estimates made by the Central Bureau of Statistics in 1985, the crude birthrate was 44 per 1,000, and the crude death rate was almost 14 per 1,000. The total fertility rate, defined as the average number of children a woman might bear, was 6.3 children, with a variation between rural and urban fertility rates. The rural total fertility rate was 6.4, compared with 5.8 for urban areas. Both the crude birthrate and the total fertility rate have remained high and fairly constant for the past several decades, whereas the crude death rate has been declining consistently, thereby contributing to rapid population growth.

The most significant category of deaths was the infant mortality rate. Varying techniques for calculating infant mortality, however, have led to discrepant estimations. They ranged from more than 147 deaths per 1,000 in 1985 to between 101 and 128 per 1,000 in 1989. Infant mortality rates also varied widely among the three geographic regions, which may have been partly because of differing rates of migration and the expectancy that higher mortality rates are found in migrant families. Nonetheless, infant mortality was almost twice as high in rural areas as urban areas, a clear indication of the lack of health services in rural areas, and was high compared to many other Asian countries.

Population Density

One of the major consequences of rapid population growth was the progressive deterioration of the ratio of people to land. This land shortage greatly affected Nepal's predominantly agrarian society, where land was the most important source of livelihood and social status, and it was most evident in terms of population density. In 1981 the population density was 102 persons per square kilometer of total land. Although the ratio appears to suggest a fairly low density, the figures are misleading. When density is measured in terms of persons per hectare of cultivatable land (that is agricultural density), the true nature of the human-land ratio emerges. The agricultural density in 1981 was 6.1 persons per hectare (or almost 0.2 hectare per person), which represents a very high density, especially given that the country's production technology remains in a backward state. Nepal's ability to reclaim more land in order to accommodate a rapidly growing population already had reached a maximum threshold.

The Society

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The Society

NEPAL IS OFTEN CHARACTERIZED as a country caught in two different worlds, having one leg in the sixteenth century and another in the twentieth century. Entrenched in a feudalistic social structure, the deeply tradition-bound society increasingly was experiencing the pervasive influence of Western material culture. Most affected were the parts of the population that came in regular contact with Westerners. Nowhere was this juxtaposition of local traditional values and Western material culture more pronounced than in the Kathmandu Valley--the country's most urbanized region.

In the Kathmandu Valley in 1991, hordes of people took ritual baths in the highly polluted Baghmati River, especially near the temple of Pashupatinath, and walked to temples that dotted the valley's landscape. Numerous peasants carried their produce to the market on bicycles or on what is locally called a kharpan, a device that resembles a large weighing balance and is carried on the shoulder. Yet, young boys wore T-shirts emblazoned with Michael Jackson or other Hollywood celebrities and watched "Miami Vice" or other American television shows. The skyline of urban areas such as Kathmandu, Siddhartha Nagar, and Pokhara was interrupted by television antennas. Copying Western popular culture and values had become the thing to do. Nepalese youth even took drugs, and the number of drug addicts had increased significantly in the 1980s.

The adoption of Western popular cultural values has not, however, translated into much-needed technological and economic progress and a consequent reduction in pervasive poverty. Although youths, especially those living in and around urban centers, readily adopted Western consumer habits, they appeared to have little knowledge about more productive habits that the West exemplifies. Entranced by the tide of consumerism, Nepalese youths seemed poorly prepared or unwilling to do hard work and make sacrifices that were imperative for establishing dynamic economic production and development. As a result, consumerism outpaced productive capacity--a process that was clearly contrary to sustained socioeconomic progress--and the country remained in a state of economic backwardness.

Despite Nepal's increasing contact with the West since liberation from Rana rule in 1951, the feudalistic yoke has not been broken. Even after thirty-five years of economic development planning, poverty remained throughout the country. Government intervention in economic development under the rubric of planning has led to a breakdown in the traditional patron-client relations. In the past, this relationship provided some security of survival--or what Karl Polyani termed in 1957 "the absence of the threat of individual starvation"--for the clients, although they were placed in a subservient position. In 1991 such patron-client relations had been replaced by wage relations, but planned development had not been able to create enough employment opportunities to gainfully absorb the clients who no longer could rely on their patrons.

There was no doubt among observers that only an increasing flow of foreign aid and loans had kept Nepal from bankruptcy. Yet there seemed to be little evidence suggesting that the aid had, despite good intentions, alleviated mass poverty and uplifted the society as a whole. Unemployment among the educated was partially addressed through the continued expansion of government jobs, but such expansion resulted in bureaucratic redundancy and, in fact, hindered economic development. Furthermore, such a strategy had only a limited ability to reduce the mass unemployment and underemployment that typified Nepal's society. Widespread unemployment and underemployment, which fueled poverty, further were exacerbated by continued rapid population growth. Despite a long-term and vigorous family planning program, the population had been growing at an increasing rate. Such population growth contributed to increasing environmental deterioration, given the frailty of the country's mountainous environment.

Rivers

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Rivers

Nepal can be divided into three major river systems from east to west: the Kosi River, the Narayani River (India's Gandak River), and the Karnali River. All ultimately become major tributaries of the Ganges River in northern India. After plunging through deep gorges, these rivers deposit their heavy sediments and debris on the plains, thereby nurturing them and renewing their alluvial soil fertility. Once they reach the Tarai Region, they often overflow their banks onto wide floodplains during the summer monsoon season, periodically shifting their courses. Besides providing fertile alluvial soil, the backbone of the agrarian economy, these rivers present great possibilities for hydroelectric and irrigation development. India managed to exploit this resource by building massive dams on the Kosi and Narayani rivers inside the Nepal border, known, respectively, as the Kosi and Gandak projects. None of these river systems, however, support any significant commercial navigation facility. Rather, the deep gorges formed by the rivers represent immense obstacles to establishing the broad transport and communication networks needed to develop an integrated national economy. As a result, the economy in Nepal has remained fragmented. Because Nepal's rivers have not been harnessed for transportation, most settlements in the Hill and Mountain regions remain isolated from each other. As of 1991, trails remained the primary transportation routes in the hills.

The eastern part of the country is drained by the Kosi River, which has seven tributaries. It is locally known as the Sapt Kosi, which means seven Kosi rivers (Tamur, Likhu Khola, Dudh, Sun, Indrawati, Tama, and Arun). The principal tributary is the Arun, which rises about 150 kilometers inside the Tibetan Plateau. The Narayani River drains the central part of Nepal and also has seven major tributaries (Daraudi, Seti, Madi, Kali, Marsyandi, Budhi, and Trisuli). The Kali, which flows between the Dhaulagiri Himal and the Annapurna Himal (Himal is the Nepali variation of the Sanskrit word Himalaya), is the main river of this drainage system. The river system draining the western part of Nepal is the Karnali. Its three immediate tributaries are the Bheri, Seti, and Karnali rivers, the latter being the major one. The Maha Kali, which also is known as the Kali and which flows along the Nepal-India border on the west side, and the Rapti River also are considered tributaries of the Karnali.

Climate

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Climate

Nepal has a great deal of variation in climate. Its latitude is about the same as that of Florida, and a tropical and subtropical climate exists in the Tarai Region. Outside the Tarai, however, the climate is completely different. The remarkable differences in climatic conditions are primarily related to the enormous range of altitude within such a short north-south distance. The presence of the east-west-trending Himalayan massifs to the north and the monsoonal alteration of wet and dry seasons also greatly contribute to local variations in climate. Scholar Sharad Singh Negi identifies five climatic zones in Nepal based on altitude: the tropical and subtropical zone of below 1,200 meters in altitude; the cool, temperate zone of 1,200 to 2,400 meters in altitude; the cold zone of 2,400 to 3,600 meters in altitude; the subarctic climatic zone of 3,600 to 4,400 meters in altitude; and the arctic zone above 4,400 meters in altitude. In terms of natural vegetational regimes or distribution patterns, altitude again plays a significant role. Below 1,200 meters, the dominant form of vegetation consists of tropical and subtropical rain forests.

Altitude also affects annual rainfall or precipitation patterns. Up to about 3,000 meters, annual rainfall totals increase as the altitude increases; thereafter, annual totals diminish with increasing altitude and latitude. In addition to this latitudinal differentiation in rainfall, two other patterns can be discerned. First, given the northwestward movement of the moisture-laden summer monsoon (June to September), the amount of annual rainfall generally decreases from east to west. However, there are certain pockets with heavy annual rainfall totals, for example, the Pokhara Valley in central Nepal. Second, the horizontal extension of hill and mountain ranges creates a moist condition on southand eastfacing slopes whereas it produces a major rain shadow on the northern sides of the slopes. The aridity increases with altitude and latitude, especially on the northern slopes, and reaches its climax in the inner Himalayan region and on the Tibetan Plateau. Eastern Nepal receives approximately 2,500 millimeters of rain annually, the Kathmandu area about 1,420 millimeters, and western Nepal about 1,000 millimeters.

The towering Himalayas play a critical role, blocking the northwesterly advances of moist, tropical air from the Bay of Bengal, and ultimately leading to its conversion to rain in the summer. In the winter, this range prevents the outbursts of cold air from Inner Asia from reaching southern Nepal and northern India, thus ensuring warmer winters in these regions than otherwise would be the case.

In addition, there are seasonal variations in the amount of rainfall, depending on the monsoon cycle. Bishop divides the monsoon cycle into four seasons: premonsoon, summer monsoon, postmonsoon, and winter monsoon. The premonsoon season generally occurs during April and May; it is characterized by the highest temperatures, reaching 40° C during the day in the Tarai Region and other lowlands. The hills and mountains, however, remain cool.

The summer monsoon, a strong flow of moist air from the southwest, follows the premonsoon season. For the vast majority of southern Asians, including Nepalese, the term monsoon is synonymous with the summer rainy season, which makes or breaks the lives of hundreds of millions of farmers on the subcontinent. Even though the arrival of the summer monsoon can vary by as much as a month, in Nepal it generally arrives in early June, is preceded by violent lightning and thunderstorms, and lasts through September, when it begins to recede. The plains and lower Himalayas receive more than 70 percent of their annual precipitation during the summer monsoon. The amount of summer monsoon rain generally declines from southeast to northwest as the maritime wedge of air gradually becomes thinner and dryer. Although the success of farming is almost totally dependent on the timely arrival of the summer monsoon, it periodically causes such problems as landslides; subsequent losses of human lives, farmlands, and other properties (not to mention great difficulty in the movement of goods and people); and heavy flooding in the plains. Conversely, when prolonged breaks in the summer monsoon occur, severe drought and famine often result.

The postmonsoon season begins with a slow withdrawal of the monsoon. This retreat leads to an almost complete disappearance of moist air by mid-October, thus ushering in generally cool, clear, and dry weather, as well as the most relaxed and jovial period in Nepal. By this time, the harvest is completed and people are in a festive mood. The two biggest and most important Hindu festivals-- Dashain and Tihar (Dipawali)--arrive during this period, about one month apart. The postmonsoon season lasts until about December.

After the postmonsoon, comes the winter monsoon, a strong northeasterly flow, which is marked by occasional, short rainfalls in the lowlands and plains and snowfalls in the high-altitude areas. The amount of precipitation resulting from the northeast land trade winds varies considerably but increases markedly with elevation. The secondary winter precipitation in the form of snowfalls in the Himalayas is important for generating a sufficient volume of spring and summer meltwaters, which are critical for irrigation in the lower hills and valleys where agriculture predominates. Winter precipitation is also are indispensable for the success of winter crops, such as wheat, barley, and numerous vegetables.

The Tarai Region

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The Tarai Region

In complete topographic contrast to the Mountain and Hill regions, the Tarai Region is a lowland tropical and subtropical belt of flat, alluvial land stretching along the Nepal-India border, and paralleling the Hill Region. It is the northern extension of the Gangetic Plain in India, commencing at about 300 meters above sea level and rising to about 1,000 meters at the foot of the Siwalik Range. The Tarai includes several valleys (dun), such as the Surkhet and Dang valleys in western Nepal, and the Rapti Valley (Chitwan) in central Nepal.

The word tarai, a term presumed to be derived from Persian, means "damp," and it appropriately describes the region's humid and hot climate. The region was formed and is fed by three major rivers: the Kosi, the Narayani (India's Gandak River), and the Karnali. A region that in the past contained malaria-infested, thick forests, commonly known as char kose jhari (dense forests approximately twelve kilometers wide), the Tarai was used as a defensive frontier by Nepalese rulers during the period of the British Raj (1858-1947) in India. In 1991 the Tarai served as the country's granary and land resettlement frontier; it became the most coveted internal destination for land-hungry hill peasants.

In terms of both farm and forest lands, the Tarai was becoming Nepal's richest economic region. Overall, Tarai residents enjoyed a greater availability of agricultural land than did other Nepalese because of the area's generally flat terrain, which is drained and nourished by several rivers. Additionally, it has the largest commercially exploitable forests. In the early 1990s, however, the forests were being increasingly destroyed because of growing demands for timber and agricultural land.

The Hill Region

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The Hill Region

Situated south of the Mountain Region, the Hill Region (called Pahar in Nepali) is mostly between 1,000 and 4,000 meters in altitude. It includes the Kathmandu Valley, the country's most fertile and urbanized area. Two major ranges of hills, commonly known as the Mahabharat Lekh and Siwalik Range (or Churia Range), occupy the region. In addition, there are several intermontane valleys. Despite its geographical isolation and limited economic potential, the region always has been the political and cultural center of Nepal, with decision-making power centralized in Kathmandu, the nation's capital. Because of immigration from Tibet and India, the hill ranges historically have been the most heavily populated area. Despite heavy out-migration, the Hill Region comprised the largest share of the total population in 1991.

Although the higher elevations (above 2,500 meters) in the region were sparsely populated because of physiographic and climatic difficulties, the lower hills and valleys were densely settled. The hill landscape was both a natural and cultural mosaic, shaped by geological forces and human activity. The hills, sculpted by human hands into a massive complex of terraces, were extensively cultivated.

Like the Mountain Region, the Hill Region was a food-deficit area in the early 1990s, although agriculture was the predominant economic activity supplemented by livestock raising, foraging, and seasonal migrating of laborers. The vast majority of the households living in the hills were land-hungry and owned largely pakho (hilly) land. The poor economic situation caused by lack of sufficient land was aggravated by the relatively short growing season, a phenomenon directly attributable to the climatic impact of the region's higher altitude. As a result, a hill farmer's ability to grow multiple crops was limited. The families were forced to adapt to the marginality, as well as the seasonality, of their environment, cultivating their land whenever they could and growing whatever would survive. Bishop has noted that "as crop productivity decreases with elevation, the importance of livestock in livelihood pursuits . . . increases. For many Bhotia [or Bhote] living in the highlands . . . animal husbandry supplants agriculture in importance." During the slack season, when the weather did not permit cropping, hill dwellers generally became seasonal migrants, who engaged in wage labor wherever they could find it to supplement their meager farm output. Dependence on nonagricultural activities was even more necessary in the mountain ecological belt.

The Mountain Region

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The Mountain Region

The Mountain Region (called Parbat in Nepali) is situated at 4,000 meters or more above sea level to the north of the Hill Region. The Mountain Region constitutes the central portion of the Himalayan range originating in the Pamirs, a high altitude region of Central Asia. Its natural landscape includes Mount Everest and the other seven of the world's ten highest peaks, which are the legendary habitat of the mythical creature, the yeti, or abominable snowman. In general, the snow line occurs between 5,000 and 5,500 meters. The region is characterized by inclement climatic and rugged topographic conditions, and human habitation and economic activities are extremely limited and arduous. Indeed, the region is sparsely populated, and whatever farming activity exists is mostly confined to the low-lying valleys and the river basins, such as the upper Kali Gandaki Valley.

In the early 1990s, pastoralism and trading were common economic activities among mountain dwellers. Because of their heavy dependence on herding and trading, transhumance was widely practiced. While the herders moved their goths (temporary animal shelters) in accordance with the seasonal climatic rhythms, traders also migrated seasonally between highlands and lowlands, buying and selling goods and commodities in order to generate muchneeded income and to secure food supplies.

Geography

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Geography

Sandwiched between two Asian giants--China and India--Nepal traditionally has been characterized as "a yam caught between two rocks." Noted for its majestic Himalayas, which in Sanskrit means the abode of snow, Nepal is very mountainous and hilly. Its shape is roughly rectangular, about 650 kilometers long and about 200 kilometers wide, and comprises a total of 147,181 square kilometers of land. It is slightly larger than Bangladesh or the state of Arkansas. Nepal is a landlocked country, surrounded by India on three sides and by China's Xizang Autonomous Region (Tibet) to the north. It is separated from Bangladesh by an approximately fifteenkilometer -wide strip of India's state of West Bengal, and from Bhutan by the eighty-eight-kilometer-wide Sikkim, also an Indian state. Such a confined geographical position is hardly enviable. Nepal is almost totally dependent on India for transit facilities and access to the sea--that is, the Bay of Bengal--even for most of the goods coming from China.

For a small country, Nepal has great physical diversity, ranging from the Tarai Plain--the northern rim of the Gangetic Plain situated at about 300 meters above sea level in the south--to the almost 8,800-meter-high Mount Everest, locally known as Sagarmatha (its Nepali name), in the north. From the lowland Tarai belt, landforms rise in successive hill and mountain ranges, including the stupendous rampart of the towering Himalayas, ultimately reaching the Tibetan Plateau beyond the Inner Himalayas. This rise in elevation is punctuated by valleys situated between mountain ranges. Within this maze of mountains, hills, ridges, and low valleys, elevational (altitudinal) changes rersulted in ecological variations.

Nepal commonly is divided into three broad physiographic areas: the Mountain Region, the Hill Region, and the Tarai Region. All three parallel each other, from east to west, as continuous ecological belts, occasionally bisected by the country's river systems. These ecological regions were divided by the government into development sectors within the framework of regional development planning.

The rhythm of life in Nepal, as in most other parts of monsoonal Asia, is intricately yet intrinsically intertwined with its physical environment. As scholar Barry Bishop learned from his field research in the Karnali region in the northwest, the livelihood patterns of Nepal are inseparable from the environment.

King Birendra

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King Birendra
When it became apparent that the panchayat system was going to endure, B.P. Koirala and otherdown their revolutionary rhetoric and advocate a reconciliation with the king. On December 30, 1976, Koirala and his close associate, Ganeshman Singh, flew to Kathmandu hoping to "make a fresh attempt." They were arrested for antinational activities and violence, and a tribunal was set up for a trial. After considerable agitation, Koirala was released in June 1977 because of ill health. He met briefly with the king and then went to the United States for treatment. When he returned to Nepal in November 1977, he was again arrested at the airport. After further public agitations on his behalf, he underwent five treason trials in early 1978 and was ultimately acquitted. Thereafter, despite factional splits, the Nepali Congress resembled other opposition parties in its acceptance of the king's power. Thus, the pattern of modern Nepalese politics was established--loyalty to the king and opposition to his government. In practice, there were continuing student demonstrations against the panchayat system and for human rights in 1977 and 1978.

On May 24, 1979, King Birendra announced on Radio Nepal that there would be a national referendum in the near future, during which the people could decide to support or reject the panchayat system of government. This referendum represented the first time in modern history that the monarch had publicly consulted his subjects. Political freedom was allowed to all citizens during the period of preparation for the referendum, and there was intense realignment of political factions inside and outside the panchayat system. Finally, on May 2, 1980, out of a potential 7.2 million voters, 4.8 million cast their ballots. The outcome supported the panchayat system, with 54.7 percent for and 45.3 percent against it. Koirala and the Nepali Congress accepted the results. Although the referendum was a victory for the king, its narrow margin clearly indicated the need for change. Accordingly, the king quickly confirmed freedom of speech and political activity and announced the formation of an eleven-member Constitution Reforms Commission. The result, in December 1980, was the Third Amendment of the 1962 constitution, setting up direct elections to the National Panchayat, which would then submit a single candidate for prime minister to the king for approval. A Council of Ministers would thenceforth be responsible to the National Panchayat, not to the king.

In March 1981, the Constitution Reforms Commission announced that elections to the National Panchayat would take place on May 9, 1981. Aside from pro-Moscow factions of the Communist Party of Nepal and a "Group of 38" from the Nepali Congress, political parties rejected the amended constitution and refused to participate in the elections. The Nepali Congress led by Koirala observed an "election boycott week" from May 1 to 8, but on election day a 52 percent turnout of voters chose 111 representatives to the National Panchayat. Surya Bahadur Thapa was returned as prime minister, and the king formed a twenty- eight-member Council of Ministers in June 1981.

Opposition politics were in a state of disarray, dominated by the terminal illness of Koirala, who died in July 1982. The victory of the king was not complete, however. During the elections, more than 70 percent of the candidates favored by the king lost. The panchayat system, a major source for local patronage, was becoming the stage for factional fights and shuffling coalitions. On many college campuses, elections for student unions went to communists after violent clashes.

The trend toward factionalism in the National Panchayat intensified in 1983, when a serious food crisis and charges of corruption caused the fall of Surya Bahadur Thapa's government. Lokendra Bahadur Chand took over as prime minister, but two blocs, or samuha had emerged in the National Panchayat around Thapa and Chand. The factional fighting did not prevent the celebration in 1986 of the panchayat system's twenty-fifth anniversary, which created an opportunity for the second general election to the National Panchayat. The Nepali Congress and most other opposition parties again boycotted the elections, although the communists and a few other small parties did participate. The elections drew 60 percent of the voters, and 60 percent of the members of the National Panchayat supported Marich Man Singh Shrestha as prime minister.

Before elections to the local panchayat the following year, the Nepali Congress announced that it would continue its boycott but then changed its strategy and allowed its members to run for local seats, claiming that it could "capture the outposts" of the system and politicize the people. The poor showing of the Nepali Congress candidates embarrassed the party, however, and revealed its isolation from many rural voters.

Despite low growth figures, throughout the 1980s Nepal at least had made some progress in economic development, but it remained in any case one of the poorest countries in the world. The king was achieving a higher profile in international affairs, canvassing widespread support for the declaration of Nepal as a zone of peace and participating in the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). These modest trends encountered a sudden interruption in 1989 when a major international incident with India occurred. On March 1, the Indian embassy announced that trade and transit treaties with Nepal, renewed regularly since the 1950s, would expire twenty-two days later. Both the Indian and Nepalese governments accused each other of delaying negotiations. When March 23 arrived, India declared the treaties had expired and closed all but two border entry points with Nepal. These closures caused huge backups on the border and delayed or halted the bulk of foreign trade, including crucial shipments of oil and gasoline and the tourist trade, a major source of foreign exchange carefully cultivated under King Birendra. There was a severe decline in agricultural production, layoffs in factories increased, and the inflation rate in 1987-88 rose to 11 percent. The growth rate of the economy, a healthy 9.7 percent in 1987-88, declined to 1.5 percent in 1988-89.

The Nepali Congress, early in its history accused of bowing to Indian opinion, in September organized a National Awakening Week during which 3,500 party members committed nonviolent civil disobedience. Student demonstrations against India began to take on antigovernment tones, and all campuses in Kathmandu closed for two months. The crisis demonstrated the fragility of the political and economic system in Nepal--an old culture but a young nation-- landlocked between two giants and directed by a medieval monarchy.

King Mahendra

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KING MAHENDRA'S EARLY LIFE
His late Majesty King Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev was born to late King Tribhuvan Bir Bikram Shah Dev and the Senior Queen Kanti Rajya Laxmi Devi Shah on June 11, 1920 (Asar 30, 1977 B.S.) at Narayanhity Royal Palace. He studied Politics, Economics, Nepali language and culture, and also English language privately in the Palace. The study of Nepali literature and composing Nepali poems formed part of his busy life. King Mahendra married Indra Rajya Laxmi Devi on May 8, 1940, at the age of twenty. The Royal couple were blessed with 3 sons and 3 daughters. Then on 4 September 1950 Indra Rajya Laxmi Shah died and King Mahendra again married Ratna Rajya Laxmi Devi (the younger sister of Indra Rajya Laxmi Devi) on December 10, 1952. At the sudden death of King Tribhuvan on march 13, 1955 in Zurich Canton Hospital (Switzerland) King Mahendra ascended the throne of the kingdom of Nepal. His Coronation Ceremony was held on May 2, 1956. After ruling the country for 17 years, King Mahendra died at Diyalo Bangalow in Chitwan, on 31st January 1972.

POLITICAL SITUATION
When king Mahendra ascended the throne in 1955, he found that the political situation of the kingdom was deteriorating. After the downfall of Ranarchy in 1951, an interim Government was formed under the leadership of King Tribhuvan. It was a coalition Government, consisting of several political parties. The opposition party, `Gorkha Dal' became violent and acted as `Khukuri Dal'. A second cabinet was formed under the Prime Ministership of Matrika Prasad Koirala. It was purely a Congress Government but their arose a conflict between Matrika Prasad and Bishweswar Prasad Koirala, so it failed to function. Then, an advisory Council was formed under the leadership of King Tribhuvan. Again, in accordance with the demand of the people, the Advisory Council wad dissolved, and Matrika Prasad Koirala formed the third Cabinet for the second time under his Prime Ministership. As the Cabinet was composed of ministers from different political parties, it could not work in harmony.

POLITICAL REFORMS
In such a state of political instability, King Mahendra ascended the throne. He tried to control the situation of the country in his own way. He constituted an Advisory Board under his leadership and started to rule the country. The formation of the Advisory Board was opposed and criticised by democratic parties. So, King Mahendra decided to delegate the powers of administration to the representatives of the people. He tried to bring a number of reforms in the political atmosphere of the kingdom. The main political events that took place during his reign can be summarize as under:

TANK PRASAD ACHARYA'S MINISTRY
King Mahendra invited Tanka Prasad Acharya, the leader of the Praja Parishad to form the ministry in 1955 A.D.Tanka Prasad Acharya became the Prime Minister. Other ministers of his Cabinet were Chuda Prasad, Balchandra Sharma, Pashupatinath Gosh, Gunja Man Singh, Purendra Bikram and Anirudda Prasad. Tanka Prasad Acharya visited China, and a diplomatic relation was established with China, on the basis of `Panchsheel', or Five Principles i.e., (a) mutual respect for each other's State, (b) non-aggression, (c) non-interference in each other's internal affairs, (d) equality and mutual benefit, and (e) peaceful co-existence. Tanka Prasad also visited Japan where he was awarded the title "Order of the Rising Sun". During the Prime Ministership of Tanka Prasad Acharya, preliminary steps to establish diplomatic relations with the USSR were also taken. Nepal was admitted to the membership of UNO on 14th December 1955, and also became a member of the International Labour Organization. In spite of such developments in foreign affairs, Tanka Prasad Acharya could not bring peace and order in the country. There arose conflicts among different ministers. Moreover, Tanka Prasad Acharya could not hold general elections within the fixed time which had been agreed upon. So, he had to tender his resignation and his cabinet was dissolved on 27th June 1956 (13th of Asar 2014 B.S.).

DR.K.I. SINGH'S MINISTRY
Now King Mahendra invited Dr.K.I. Singh* , the leader of the United Democratic Party, to form the Government. Dr. Singh could not get support from other political parties, so he formed a Cabinet of the United Democratic Party on 26th July 1957 (11th of Shrawan 2014 B.S.). Other ministers of Dr. Singh's Cabinet were Purendra Bikram Shah, Parshuram Mathema, C.B. Singh, Dambar Bahadur Singh, Ramadhin Mahato, Jivaraj Sharma, Kul Bahadur Limbu, Bhupal Man Singh, Padma Narasingh Rana and Laxmi Prasada Devkota, Dr. Singh attempted to get independent control, but he had to quit ruling after 110 days as Prime Minister. Thus Dr. Kunwar Indrajit Singh became the Prime Minister for the shortest period in the democratic period of the History of Nepal.

THE UNITED FRONT MINISTRY
After the resignation of Dr.K.I.Singh, King Mahendra ruled directly for some time. Then he asked the representatives of different political parties if they could hold the general election in the fixed time. The Congress and the Gorkha Parishad came forward and a multi-party government was formed. This ministry was composed of the representatives of several parties, like Subarna Shumsher from the Nepali Congress, Ranadhir Subba from the Gorkha Parishad, Chandra Bhusan Pande from the Nepal Praja Parishad, Dilli Raman Regmi from the Nepali National Congress, and Purendra Bikram and Bhupal man Singh as independent members. This ministry fulfilled the desire of King Mahendra of holding a general election. In spite of certain hindrances, the general election was conducted throughout the kingdom.

CONSTITUTION OF THE KINGDOM OF NEPAL,1959
King Mahendra enacted and promulgated the constitution of the kingdom of Nepal on February 12, 1959. The constitution of the kingdom of Nepal was framed by a drafting committee under the chairmanship of Bhagavati Prasad Singh, the constitutional expert of U.K. Sir Ivor Jenneings, was also invited. The 1959 constitution had ten parts and 77 Articles. The constitution was based on Parliamentary System of government. According to the constitution, Nepal was to be a democratic country. The Constitution provided two houses in the Nepalese Parliament-Pratinidhi sabha (lower house) and Mahasabha (upper house). The Pratinidhi Sabha consisted of 109 members elected by the people, and the Mahasabha consisted of 36 members, 18 of the members of the Mahasabha to be elected by the Pratinidhi Sabha and the remaining 18 to be nominated by the king. For the purpose of election, the country was divided into 109 constituencies and each constituency was to send one member to the Pratinidhi Sabha. Among other things, the Constitution contained the provisions of the fundamental Rights for the first time in the history of Nepal. The constitution provided the National Council of Ministers, the Supreme court, the Public Service Commission, Auditor General, and the Emergency powers of the king.

FIRST GENERAL ELECTION
The first General Election was held on 18th February 1959. According to the provisions of the Constitution of the kingdom of Nepal 1959, the country was divided into 109 constituencies for the purpose of election. Nine political parties of the country contested the election. Two-thirds of the seats were won by the Nepali Congress Party, the Conservative Gorkha Parishad won 19, the United Democratic Party 5, and the Communist Party 4. In accordance with the provisions of the Constitution, the leader of the majority party in the Nepalese parliament, Mr.Bishweswar Prasad Koirala was sworn in as the Prime Minister on 27th May 1959.

BISHWESWAR PRASAD KOIRALA'S MINISTY
Bishweswar Prasad included 9 Ministers and 11 Deputy Ministers in his ministry. The ministers were: Subarna Shumsher, Surya Prasad Upadhaya, Ram Narayan Misra, Ganesh man Singh, Shiva Raj Panta, Parshu Narayan Chaudhary, Tribeni Prasad and Kashinath Gautam. The Deputy Ministers were: Premraj Aang Dambe, Lalit Chand, Dwarika Devi Thakurani, Min Bahadur Gurung, Iman Singh Gurung, Netra Bahadur Malla, Yogendra Man Sherchan, Tulsi Giri, Shiva Pratap Shah, Diwan Singh Rai and Suryanath Das Yadav. B.P. Koirala tried to run the government smoothly for some time. But the Koirala government could not bring any substantial changes in the country. The widespred lawlessness was not controlled. The political leaders became power - mongers. The ministers paid more attention to strengthen their position in the party than to bring development to the country. Favouritism, red-tapism and bribery flourished in the government officers. The Nepali Congress had absolute majority and there was no strong opposition party in the Nepalese Parliament. On 15th of December 1960, King Mahendra took a bold step and arrested the leaders of the Nepali Congress including Bishweswar Prasad Koirala, Surya Prasad Upadhyaya and Ganesh Man Singh. He dismissed the Nepalese Parliament and suspended the Constitution of the kingdom of Nepal 1959. He also banned all political parties in the country. King Mahendra formed a Cabinet under his Chairmanship and included in it the prominent people selected on the basis of their personal merit. Dr. Tulsi Giri was made the Prime Minister.

INTRODUCTION OF THE PANCHAYAT SYSTEM
Reviving the age-old Panchayat System with necessary reforms and improvements to suit in Nepal's socio-political context, he introduced it in the kingdom of Nepal. The Panchayat System received constitutional recognition in 1962 A.D. The constitution of 1962 was framed by a drafting committee under the chairmanship of Rishikesh Shah. It consisted of 6 Parts and 97 Articles. The constitution provided council of ministers, power and function of legislature, supreme court , fundamental rights and duties, power and position of the king, auditor general, public service commission etc. With the New Constitution of Nepal, the Panchayat System became the system of administration in Nepal.. Dr. Tulsi Giri was the first Prime Minister under the Panchayat System. After Dr. Giri, Surya Bahadur Thapa, Kirtinidhi Bista, Nagendra Prasad Rijal, Lokendra Bahadur Chand, and Marich Man Singh Shrestha became the Prime Ministers of the kingdom of Nepal under the Panchayat System. The Panchayat system of government introduced in 1960, continued for 3 decades, and was overthrown in a Mass Revolution of 1990 A.D.

ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS
In order to achieve efficient administration and to bring rapid progress and development in the country , King Mahendra constituted the National Planning Council. The Council had to make recommendations to His Majesty's Government for the development works in the kingdom. Again, for the administrative convenience and to bring development to all quarters of the kingdom, King Mahendra divided the kingdom of Nepal into 14 Zones and 75 Districts. This division was made after a geographical survey. Realizing that Nepal is a country of villagers, King Mahendra gave due importance for the development of villages and remote areas of the country. The introduction of "Back to the Village - National Campaign" in 1967 had been quite effective for some time. This campaign made the illiterate villagers conscious of their duties, rights and privileges and developed in them the sense of nationality, to some extent.

ECONOMIC REFORMS
For the all-round development of the country, King Mahendra introduced Five-year Plans. During his reign, Nepal Rastra Bank, Rastriya Banijya Bank, Rastriya Beema Sansthan (Life Insurance Corporation) and Agriculture Development Bank, were established. Several industries including Bansbari Leather Shoes Factory, Janakpur Cigarette factory, and several others at Biratnagar, Hetauda, Patan and Balaju were established. Water Power projects at Trishuli and Panuati generated power for the industries. The construction of the Mahendra Highway was also started in his life time, the foundation stone of which was laid down by King Mahendra himself in 1962. King Mahendra protected the rights of the tenants and small farmers by the introduction of Land Reforms Act in January, 1964. He also gave emphasis to the development of the tourist trade.

SOCIAL REFORMS
For the protection of fundamental rights of the citizens, King Mahendra established the Supreme Court and reformed the judicial system of the country. He introduced the New Civil Code (Muluki Ain) on 17th August 1963 for the protection of the rights of women children and weaker sections of the society. By this Code, King Mahendra modernized the Nepali Society which was still following conservative and superstitious beliefs. The Code ensured equal treatment for all, irrespective of their caste, wealth or sex. King Mahendra constructed several inns, rest-house and water taps, in various places and renovated the existing ones. He did a lot for the protection and preservation of antiquities of the country. He also established the National Sports Council, Dasarath Stadium, Rastriya Nachghar and Rastriya Sabhagriha, for the development of education in all parts of the country. The Tribhuvan University was established during his reign. The Janak Education Material Centre and Teacher's Training Institute were also established by King Mahendra. He himself was a poet and respected the poets and writer. He also composed beautiful songs and poems in the Nepali Language. He has been regarded as the pioneer poet of the modern period of Nepali literature.

FOREIGN POLICY
King Mahendra adopted the non-aligned foreign policy. He maintained friendly relations with the neighbouring countries and always spoke for peace, friendship and co-operation. Leading the Nepalese delegation at the Summit Conferences of Non-aligned Nations, King Mahendra reaffirmed Nepal's commitment to peace, friendship, co-operaton and co-existence. He also spoke for world peace. Because of his friendly attitude towards the international organizations and other countries, Nepal was admitted to U.NO., International Labour organization and Non-aligned Community. Nepal exchanged diplomatic reactions with 51 countries till January 1972 (during the life time of King Mahendra). King Mahendra paid State visits to America, Britain, China, India and many other countries and met many worlds leaders. He also invited the heads of the countries he visited, to Nepal. The visits of the world leaders to Nepal made Nepal known to the world. The natural beauty of Nepal attracted visitors and Nepal became the centre of tourists of all countries. In addition, Nepal got financial as well as technical aid for the development of the country from many of the advanced countries of the world. * During the revolution against the Rana Regime, Dr. Singh was made prisoner at Simha Durbar, as he didn't obey the cease-fire order according to the Delhi Agreement. He had escaped from the jail and started an armed revolution in Kathmandu. When he saw that he could not succeed in his plan, he went to China. Later on, when King Mahendra ascended the throne, he was pardoned. He came back to Nepal and formed the United Democratic Party

King Tribhuvan and fall of the Ranas

2009-06-23T03:37:00.000-07:00

KING TRIBHUVAN BIR BIKRAM SHAH'S ASCEND TO THRONE

After the death of his father, Tribhuvan Bir Birkarm Shah ascended the throne on 20th February 1913, at the age of five. Queen Mother Laxmi Dibeswari Devi was appointed the regent until King Tribhuvan would come to his age.
BHIM SHUMSHER

After the death of Chandra Shumsher on 25th November 1929 A.D., his brother, Bhim Shumsher became the Prime Minister and "Shree Teen" of Nepal. He was a devotee of Lord Rama. He had 28 years' experience as the Commander-in-Chief and Chief Officer of State Administration under his brother Chandra Shumsher. He, at first showed a very liberal tendency and the people were glad to find such a ruler after the harsh rule of Chandra Shumsher. But he grew harsher as time passed on. People were severely dealt with even on the mere report of spying. He brought drastic changes in the role of succession. He appointed Juddha Shumsher in the post of "Mukhtiyar" and Dharma Shumsher as "Jangi Lath". he made Hiranya Shumsher "Hazuria" General and Ram Shumsher became Major General. Ram Shumsher also became the chief of the Police Department. Bhim Shumsher appointed his four grandsons in the posts of Major-General.

The main events during Bhim Shumshers regime can be summed up as under.
Bhim Shumsher's attitude towards Tibet and India: There was a trouble between Tibet and Nepal during his rule. A war was about to break out. While Bhim Shumsher was preparing for war, a peace proposal was negotiated through the British Government in India. As a result of this treaty, Bhim Shumsher was benefitted, for he had appropriated 25 million rupees for war. In 1931 A.D. Bhim Shumsher visited India and strongly supported British rule in India. Many Indian newspapers gave importance to his Indian visit. After his visit to India, Bhim Shumsher was honoured by Italian and Chinese governments. He accepted the honour and informed the British India Government about it.
The Charkha incident: Imitating the Charkha campaign launched by Mahatma Gandhi in India, Tulsi Mehar started to spread the use of Charkha (spinning wheel) throughout the valley in 1930 A.D. Bhim Shumsher felt the widespread use of Charkha would cause trouble to the Rana rulers. So, he charged Tulsi Mehar with treason and arrested him.

The Library incident: Some young men of Kathmandu under the leadership of Jagbir Singh had acquired permission to open a Public Library from Bhim Shumsher. They prepared a draft plan for the library and submitted it for approval to Bhim Shumsher. But, a person called Ram Chandra Adhikari, reported against them to the Prime Minister saying that the library might arouse the people against the Ranas. As a result, forty five people were arrested including Jagbir Singh, Hari Krishna Shrestha, Laxmi Prasad Devkota, Dharma Raj Thapalia, Krishna Prasad Khatiwda and Chittadhar Upashak. They were fined Rs. 100/- each. Half of the amount of the time was given to Ram Chandra Adhikari, as a reward.

Pranchanda Gorkha incident: In 1931 A.D., Umesh Bikram Shah, Capt. Khanda Man Singh Basnet, Maina Bahadur, Khadga Man singh, Ranga Nath Sharma and some other people organised an underground political party called the "Prachanda Gorkha". It was formed with a view to bringing about a change in the administrative system of the country. When the secrecy of the party was disclosed, Umesh Bikram Shah, Maina Bahadur, Khadga Man Singh, Captain Khanda Man Singh Basnet and Ranga Nath were arrested, Whipped and tortured. The Ranas proved them guilty of treason and they were sentenced to life imprisonment. Umes Bikram Shah was sent to Palpa "under chains". He was kept in "bamboo cage" especially made for him and was carried by the Army. Others were kept in Central Jail as prisoners. Khanda Man Singh died in the Jail.

Basanta Shumsher's incident: General Basanta Shumsher, the son of Padma Shumsher ands grandson of Bhim Shumsher, attempted to produce for personal use "Subarna Bhasma" , an Ayurvedic medicine. For its preparation charcoal was needed in large quantity. Basanta Shumsher went to Sundarijal together with the apparatus. General Hiranya Shumsher and Ram Shumsher, the illegitimate sons of Bhim Shumsher reported to Bhim Shumsher that Basanta was attempting to produce bombs and other explosives against the Prime Minister. So, Bhim Shumsher arrested Basanta Shumsher and expelled him, his own grandson, from the role of succession.

REFORMS OF BHIM SHUMSHER
During his 33 months of prime ministership Bhim shumsher brought many reforms for the welfare of the people. He exempted the imposition of duties on salt, cotton and live-stock, and encouraged cotton plantations. He sent 'Ukhada Janch Commission' to bring about a change in the Zamindari system in Butwal. Ukhada Janch Commission worked under General Tej Shumsher. But that commission's survey work was incomplete. He arranged for a good supply of drinking water in Kathmandu. He declared every Saturday a holiday. The working hours of offices were also fixed from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m. He also passed an order for the suspension of Capital Punishment in the country in 1931 A.D. He upgraded the middle school of Patan and Bhaktapur to high school standard.
He built palaces for the members of his family and gave them lands. He also deposited money in foreign banks. He listed his illegitimate sons and grandsons on the "role of succession". He died on 1st September 1932 A.D.

JUDDHA SHUMSHER
According to the order of succession, Juddha Shumsher succeeded Bhim Shumsher on 1st September 1932 A.D., as the Prime Minister. He was fearless, courageous and generous, and a man of national pride. He ruled for 13 years and led Nepal on the path of progress and prosperity. When he began to rule he had to face many problems and difficulties.
On 14th January 1934, at about 2 P.M. (1990 B.S.), a dreadful earthquake occurred in Nepal which caused a heavy loss in men and material. According to the available figure 8519 people died and 15000 were seriously injured and 27740 houses were badly damaged. Dharahara, the clock tower and many temples and roads were also damaged. Juddha Shumsher established a relief committee. That committee provided interest free loan to the relief fund. Some amount was drawn from the Pashupatinath temple trust and the rest were drawn from the state treasury. Some temples and public offices like Dharahara and the Clock Tower which collapsed during the earthquake were restored to their former shape. New buildings and roads were also constructed in Kathmandu. An amount of Rs. 2982316 was spent in relief works. Later, Juddha Shumsher announced the cancellation of all debts. Those who had partly repaid the loan also got a refund.

On 18th March 1934 A.D. Juddha Shumsher expelled all the "C" class Ranas from the roll of succession. The illegitimate sons of Bir Shumsher, and the sons and grandsons of Bhim Shumsher had risen to the position superior to those of "A" class. Rudra Shumsher, for example, had risen to the post of C-in-C. Juddha Shumsher sent him away as Governor to Palpa, Hiranya Shumsher was made chief administrator at Dhankuta, Pratap Shumsher at Ilam and Ram shumsher at Mahottari.

JUDDHA SHUMSHER AND THE SECOND WORLD WAR
In 1939, the second world war broke out. Germany, England, China, Japan and other countries prepared for war. The brave Gorkhali Solders had shown their bravery and courage in the 1st World War. So France, Italy, Germany, Belgium, China and other countries of the world wanted to keep friendly relation with Nepal. Many countries offered honours and tilles to Juddha Shumsher. But, Nepal took the side of Great Britain. To strengthen their relations with Nepal, Britain allowed Nepal to send an Ambassador to Great Britain. Accordingly, Bahadur Shumsher, the eldest son of Juddha Shumsher, was sent as the first residential Nepalese Ambassador to Great Britain. Juddha Shumsher decided to help British Government and on 8th November 1939 he sent two regiments, each with 8 thousand soldiers, under the joint command of General Ekraj Shumsher and General Brahma Shumsher who showed uncommon bravery in Burma, Egypt. Sudan, Singapore, Iraly, Iraq, Iran and many other places. Ten Nepalese soldiers were decorated with the V.C. (Victoria Cross), the highest award for bravery in Britain. After the end of the war, the commander-in-Chief of the British Indian Army came to Nepal. A march past was held in his honour. At that time, he was decorated with the title of "Nepal Tara". During that ceremony Juddha Shumsher announced that he had established a fund of three Lakhs of Rupees to help the Army personnel during mergency.

THE BEGINING OF REVOLUTION AGAINST THE RANAS :
In 1939 A.D 'Praja Parishad', an underground political party was format to bring the Rana regime to an end. When Juddha Shumsher came to know of it, he arrested most of the leaders of the Parishad. Four of them, Dharma Bhakta ,Sukra Raj Shastri, Dasarath Chand and Ganga Lal Shrestha were sentenced to death. Tanka Prasad Acharya, Ram Hari, Chuda Prasad and Govinda Prasad being Brahmans were sentenced to life-imprisonment. Similarly, the workers of the "Nagarik Adhabir High School also were imprisoned and the properties of the prisoners were confiscated. Chinia Lal died in Jail. Poet Siddhi Charan was given 12 years imprisonment and Arya Samaj members Madav Raj Joshi and Tulsi Mehar were also punished. According to her court decision Sukra Raj Sastri was hanged to death over a tree at Teku, Dharma Bhakta was hanged at Sifal, Dasarath Chand and Ganga Lal were shot near Sobha Bhagabati temple. Juddha Shumsher slipped away form Kathmandu on the plea of hunting, so that he might not be held responsible for all these activities. The sons of Chandra Shumsher were ultimately blamed for the death and imprisonment of these political leaders.

REFORMS OF JUDDHA SHUMSHER
During his Prince Ministership of 13 years, Juddha Shumsher brought about many forms. He provide more water taps in Kathmandu and tube wells in the terai. A Zoo in Jawalakhel was built and he established the Fire Brigade for the first time.
He set up an Agricultural Committee for the development of agriculture in the country. He started co-operative bank to give loans at two percent interest. An Agricultural School was established to give education and training to the farmers on improved methods of agriculture. Be keeping and cotton plantations were encouraged. He introduced the use of home made clothes. A Forest Office was established for the preservation of forests and wild-life. Deforestation was discouraged and a new scheme was prepared for afforestation.
Juddha Shumsher caused much development in commerce and industry. A new Company Act was enacted and Biratnagar Jute Mill, Cotton Mills, Juddha Match Factory, Nepal Sabun Karyalaya, and other limited companies were started. During his prime ministership 21 mills and factories were set up. For the first time a bank, Nepal Bank Limited, was established. He spend 6 Lakh of rupees for the Hydro Electric Project at Sundarijal. Udyog Parishad, Bekar Sahayak Sanstha, and Bureau of Mines and the Himalaya Miners' Syndicate were also established. Juddha Shumsher established the Public Works Department. He constructed the roads from Dharan to Jogbani, Butwal to Nautanawa and the road from Dhulikhel to Tokha was broadened. Trolleys ran from Matarirtha to Teku. He also broadened the Juddha Sadak (New Road) and Putali Sadak of Kathmandu. Trains ran from Jayanagar to Janakpur. The postal systems was re-organised. Nepali stamps were recognised by foreign countries. The telephone service was also introduced. Biratnagar, Dhankuta, Dharan and Jhapa were connected to Kathmandu with telephone lines. He introduced Nepali Currency Notes as well.

A High Court was established in Kathmandu. Pensions were given to government servants after their retirement. He made reforms in the Army also. The Kathmandu Military School was re-organised. An age limit was fixed for recruiting soldiers in the army. He curtailed the unnecessary expenses in social functions and ceremonies by issuing and ordinance. The mourning period on the death of parents was also reduced from 45 to 13 days.
Juddha showed interest in the spread of education. Since 1934, Nepalese students have been able to appear in the Matriculation Examination in Nepal. The Matriculation examination was officially recognized from his time. He started science class in Tri Chandra College. Compounders and overseers began to be trained. Physical training and sports were introduced in schools and colleges. "Nepali Bhasa Prakashini Samiti" was formed, and, the Nepali language was recognized in Indian Universities. The Gorkhapatra was made a bi-weekly paper, and other magazines like `Sarada' and `Udyog' were also published.
Juddha Shumsher was a liberal man. He was fond of games, shooting and hunting. He always respected learned and educated men. He wanted to develop the Nepali Language and literature, arts, industries and trade. He wanted to make matrimonial relation with Royal family. In 1904 A. D. Indra Rajya Laxmi Devi, the Grand daughter of Juddha Shumsher and daughter of Hari Shumsher was married to Crown Prince Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev.
On 29th November 1945 A. D., Juddha Shumsher called an official meeting at Singha Durbar. On the meeting he announced the he had resigned from the post of Prime Ministership and entrusted the job of administration to his nephew Padma Shumsher. He declared that his desire was to go to the forest for the peace of his soul. Then he took out the crown from his head and put it on the head of his successor, Padma Shumsher. Then Juddha Shumsher went to Ridi and began to live there as a Rishi. After some time, he moved to Dehradun. He died at Dehradun.

PADMA SHUMSHER
Padma Shumsher succeeded Juddha Shumsher. He was the son of Bhim Shumsher. Padma Shumsher was a quick minded man. He was a man of liberal sentiments but he lacked determination. He was simple-minded and of a peaceful temperament. He was also a reformist. He used to say "I am the servant of the people".

In India, the British government was making final preparation was making final preparation to hand over the power to the people of India. That development influenced Nepalese power to the people of India. That development influenced Nepalese leaders as well. Nepali leaders began to work against Rana rule. Prime Minister Padma Shumsher studied that situation. He turned his attention to the welfare of the people for the safe of Rana rule. But Mukhtiar Mohan Shumsher believed in despotic rule.

POLITICAL AGITATIONS DURING PADMA SHUMSHER'S RULE
By that time India had become independent. So a new wave of consciousness swept over Nepal as well. The Nepalese residing in India were inspired by the Indian Movement for Freedom struggle and their achievements, and formed themselves into parties and organisations to launch a freedom movement against the Ranas in Nepal. Biratnagar Hartal, which was launched on 4th March, 1947 was the first movement against the Ranas. It was backed by the Nepali National Congress. The wave of freedom movements spread to Kathmandu, Bhaktapur and Patan as well. Some young men under the leadership of Prem Bahadur Kansakar formed themselves into a voluntary corps and also opened a library known as `Pradipta Pustakalaya' with a view to awakening the masses. The Nepal National League was formed under the leadership of Gopal Prasad Rimal. Student from `Sanskrit Pathshala' also staged demonstrations. In order to pacify the people on 26th January 1948 A. D. he called a general meeting of Government officers, traders, industrialists, saints, religious men and social workers at his residence at Bisal Nagar. In that meeting, he announced that some constitutional reform would be made.

He established a Reform Committee and also invited from India some constitutional experts to frame the constitution. A constitutional advisory body under the leadership of Shri Prakash came to Nepal. The members of this `Team of three' were Shri Prakash, Dr. Ram Ugra Singh and Raghunath Singh. Thus, Padma Shumsher published country's first written constitution in 1948 (2004 B. S.). The government of Nepal Act 1948 provided the people with fundamental rights and established an executive council, legislative assembly, independent court of justice, publication of the National Budget etc. The Government of Nepal Act gave some rights to the people but the power of legislators were very limited. The Prime Minister was invested with the power of veto which very limited. The Prime Minister was invested with the power of veto which he could use at any time.

A diplomatic and commercial treaty was signed between Nepal and the U.S.A. Diplomatic relations were also established with free India. Simha Shumsher was appointed as the first Nepalese ambassador to India..

REFORMS OF PADMA SHUMSHER
Padma Shumsher attempted to spread mass education in Nepal. He established "Basic-Education School". He was in fovour of educating girls and established Padma Kanya High School which became a college later. A literary conference was help for the first time during his regime under the auspices of 'sahitya Parishad' which was established by the effort of Kedar Man Byathit. Laxmi Prasad Devkota, the famous poet of Nepali literature, presided over the conference.

He fixed the office hours for summer at 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. and for winter 11 a.m. to 4 p.m. He also gave D.A. (dearness allowance) to the soldiers and civil sevants. The first municipal Election in Kathmandu was held during his regime.
The friendly spirit and liberal tendencies of Padma Shumsher alarmed a group of conservative Ranas. Shortly after the announcement of constitutional reforms he left for Ranchi (India), on the pretext of medical treatment. Mohan Shumsher did not wait for the resignation of Padma Shumsher, so he moved to occupy the official residence of prime minister at Singha Durbar. In April, 1948 Padma Shumsher was forced to resign. Padma Shumsher died in 1950 A.D. in Calcutta.

MOHAN SHUMSHER
In April 1984, when Padma Shumsher resigned, Mohan Shumsher became the Prime Minister in order of succession. The first thing he did as a Prime Minister was to declare the Nepali Congress illegal. He circulated several orders to cancel the Constitution given by Padma Shumsher on 26th January 1948. Thus, he deprived the people of fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution of 1948.

During that time, British government had already left India and the government of Indian National Congress was firmly established in India. The Indian government was not in favour of autocrat Ranas. The Indian government advised Mohan Shumsher to rule in democratic way. But he did not listen to Indian advice. During the regime of Mohan Shumsher, Nepal did not achieve any remarkable progress. Except for the circulation of new stamps on which Nepali culture was depicted, Mohan Shumsher did nothing. During his rule, Ranarchy was very strong and the struggle for freedom from Ranarchy was also active. Ultimately, he had to surrender before the people and the king. The end of his rule marked the beginning of democracy in the kingdom of Nepal.

ARYA SAMAJ
During the rule of Bir Shumsher, Madhav Raj Joshi, the father of Shukra Raj, the martyr, established an office of Arya Samaj at Kathmandu, Madhav Raj Joshi was influenced by Swami Dayananda Saraswati, the founder of Arya Samaj (a religious society) in India. Madhav Raj started propagating his doctrine in Nepal, but during the rule of Chandra Shumsher, the office of Arya Samaj was closed and Madhav Raj was arrested. Chandra Shumsher was afraid that the preaching of the doctrines of Arya Samaj might lead to the awakening of the people. When Madhav Raj was released, he went to India and opened an office of Arya Samaj at Darjeeling.
Later on, the other two sons of Madhav Raj, Namely, Amar Raj and Bakpati Raj, came to Kathmandu from India. Under their leadership. Fatte Bahadur, Chandra Man Maske, Tulsi Mehar and Chakra Bahadur Amatya, opened an office of Arya Samaj. Again, some of the members of the Arya Samaj were arrested. So, they formed another society named `Malami Guthi' and started preaching the doctrine of the Arya Samaj. When the activities of the Malami Guthi were known to the Prime Minister, Amar Raj and Bakpati Raj were exiled from the country.

THE GORKHA LEAGUE
The Gorkha soldiers who returned form foreign countries after the first World War (1914 to 1918), were political conscious. So, some of the enthusiastic young men engaged themselves in the task of awakening the people. Accordingly, the `Gorkha League' was formed under the leadership of Chandan Shing at Dehradun in 1927 A.D. Chandan Singh published `Gorkha Sansar' and `Tarun Gorkha' in which articles were published criticising the Rana rulers of Nepal. Similarly, Krishna Lal Published a book entitled 'Makaiko Kheti' during the rule of Chandra Shumsher. In the introduction of this book he wrote 'foreign dogs were better treated would not do as good a service as the street dogs of Nepal to drive away thieves and robbers.' For this satirical remarks he was imprisoned for 9 years. He was the first man who wrote against the Rana rule. He died in the jail.

NAGARIK ADHIKAR SAMITI:
During the regime of Juddha Shumsher, a committee for civil rights, known as ' Nagarik Adhikar Samiti' was formed. Shukra raj Shastri, Kedar Nath Byathit. Ganga Lal Shrestha and Murlidhar were its active members. Shukra Raj Shastri was soon arrested on the charge that he had met Mahatma Gandhi and Madan Mohan Malaviya, the great leaders of India, during his stay in India in connection with the publication of his book, The other members of the committee rendered volunteer services to the people on religious festivals. They started giving lectures from time to time to rouse the consciousness of the people. When Shukra Raj Shastri was arrested, other members soon went underground.

PRAJA PARISAD:
During the regime of Juddha Shumser, a secret political party "Praja Parisad" was formed in 1993 B.S. at Om Bahal Tole in Kathmandu. The leading members of the party were Tanka Prasad Acharya, Ram Hari Sharma, Dasarath Chand, Dharma Bhakta Mathema, Jib Raj, Chudda Prasad etc. The aim of the party was to overthrow the Rana rule and establish a Democratic System of government under the leadership of kind Tribhuvan Bir Bikram Shah Dev. This party worked very secretly for some years. Tribhuvan gave his moral support to the organisers of the party. The king gave them Rs.4000 I.C. to meet the expenses of the party. The Praja Parisad did much against the Rana rule. Soon, Juddha Shumsher became active in controlling the work of the Praja Parisad. He announced the reward of Rs.5000 to any one who would give the information about the Praja Parisad. After some times, Bak Pati Raj disclosed the whole secrecy of the party. So the members of the praja parisad were arrested. Them Juddha shumsher established a special court to deal with the prominent members of the praja parisad. According to the count decision in 1997 B.S Dharma Bhakta, Ganga Lal, Shukra Raj and Dasarath Chand were given death sentences, and Tanka Prasad Acharya, Ram Hari Sharma, Chuda Prasad and Govinda Prasad were given life imprisonment.

THE NEPALI CONGRESS :
On 15th of Kartik 2003 B.S some Nepali students of Benaras had established a party called "Akhil Nepali Rastriya Congress". The aim of that party was to overthrow the Rana rule and establish a democratic system under the leadership of the king. Bishweswar Prasad Koirala was the leader of that party. After some days the Congress members elected Devi Prasad Sapkota and Bala Chandra Sharma in the posts of president and vice president. A big conference of the Congress was held in Calcutta on 25th January 1947, in which leaders like Ganesh Man Singh ,Dilli Raman Regmi , and those political workers who had fled to India. joined to the conference. Many Indian leaders sent their good wishes to the conference and the party. The Calcutta meeting decided to establish congress office in Benaras and party's name was changed into "Nepali Rastriya (National) Congress". The Nepalese students who were studying in Benaras had established a 'Nepal students' Union' and gave their full support to the Nepali National Congress. Besides, the Nepalese organizations in India, like the 'Gorkha League' and the 'Young Gorkha' extended their full support and co-operation to the Nepali National Congress. The third Nepali Rastriya Congress conference was held at Darbhanga in March 1949. The Darbhanga conference decided to launch a country wide armed revolution in Nepal against the rule of the Ranas. But Mohan Shumsher met Bishweswor Prasad Koirala and requested to stop the country wide armed revolution. He promised to make constitutional reforms.

Towards the end of 1948, the Nepali Democratic Congress was founded in Calcutta by Mahendra Bikram Shah, Surya Prasad Upadhaya and Prem Bahadur Kansakar. Subarna Shumsher and Mahabir Shumsher had financially helped the Prajatantra (Democratic) Congress. Mahendra Bikram made a plan to launch a country-wide agitation. In the meantime, a group of the Nepali National Congress and Nepali Democratic Congress met together at Calcutta on 9th April 1950 and formed jointly the 'Nepali Congress'. Matrika Prasad Koirala was elected 'President' of the Nepali Congress. It was resolved that Matrika Prasad was to organize the party on a democratic pattern, while internally Bishweswar Prasad Koirala and Surarna Shumsher were to plan an armed revolution.

Then Ganesh Man Singh, Sunder Chalise and others came to Kathmandu with a view to win over the Nepalese army to the side of the Nepali Congress. Mohan Shumsher soon came to know of it, and he arrested them. Now the Ranas became very much alarmed. King Tribhuvan was in favour of the Congress. So, the movements of the king were also watched very closely.

THE BIRATNAGAR HARTAL :
The labourers of Biratnagar Jute Mills launched a strike on 4th March 1947. The labourers were inspired and led by the great leaders of the Nepali Congress, Tarani Prasad Koirala, Girija Prasad Koirala, Manmohan Adhikari, Gahendra Hari Sharma and Yubaraj Adhikari. Troops were sent from Kathmandu to suppress the strike, Bishweswar Prasad Koirala, Bal Chandra Sharma, Gopal Prasad, Girija Prasad Koirala, Manmohan Adhikari, Gehendra Hari Sharma, Tarani Prasad Koirala and others were arrested. Most of the demands of the workers of the Biratnagar Jute Mills were fulfilled. But the workers continued their strike under the leadership of Matrika Prasad Koirala. At last, the Rana troops opened fire on the peaceful procession of the labourers. As a result, some of the workers were killed, many were injured, and many workers were arrested.

THE JOGBANI CONFERENCE :
The members of the Nepali Congress decided to launch a country-wide movement if the arrested leaders were not released. The Rana Government did not release the leaders of the Nepali Congress. So, a conference, in which representatives from different places of Nepal took part, was held at Jobbani. According to the resolution of the conference, a country-wide movement was to be launched from 13th April, 1947. The Rana Government promised to fulfill their demands. So, Matrika Prasad Koirala, the Chairman of the Action Committee, called off the movement.

JAYANTU SANSKRITUM
Some students of the Sanskrit Pradhan Pathshala went to Benaras in 1947 to sit for the examination of Benaras Hindu University. There they were influenced by the doctrines and activities of the Nepali Congress. They became politically conscious, and when they came back to Nepal, they demanded that in the Sanskrit Pradhan Pathshala, certain other subjects besides Sanskrit, should be taught. They demanded that History, Geography, Politics, etc. should be included in their course of study. Till then, only Sanskrit was taught in that Pathshala. Their demand was not fulfilled. The strike of the Sanskrit students took a serious turn. They walked around the streets of Kathmandu begging alms and shouting the slogans 'Jayantu Sanskritum.' Many students were arrested and 14 of them were exiled.

THE NEPALI PRAJA PANCHAYAT :
Padma Shumsher had prepared a Constitution and made it public on 26th January 1948. Soon after the historic announcement of the Constitution, the `Nepali Congress' was declared illegal on 18th April 1948. So, some young men of Kathmandu like Tripubar Singh, Gopal Prasad Rimal, Bijaya Bahadur Malla and Gopal Das formed a party named 'Nepali Praja Panchayat' on 12th October, 1948. The Nepali Praja Panchayat was established under the provisions of the Constitution given by Padma Shumsher. But Mohan Shumsher, when he became the Prime Minister, did not allow this party to function and he arrested most of the leaders of the Nepali Praja Panchayat. In fact, he did not want any party to be formed and work even within the framework of the Constitution.

In the mean time, Bishweswar Prasad Koirala, Kedar Man Byathit and Krishna Prasad Bhattarai came to Kathmandu and gave impetus to the movements started under the Nepali Praja Panchayat. Bishweswar Prasad Koirala was arrested for the second time. Kedar Man and Krishna Prasad Bhattarai, however, managed to escape to India. Finding no other way, Mohan Shumsher released Bishweswar Prasad Koirala.

THE BAIRAGANIA RESOLUTION:
Mohan Shumsher followed the policy of ruthless suppression. Seeing his attitude, the leaders of the Nepali Congress met in a conference at Baigania on 26th September, to 28th September 1950. A resolution was passed, adopting the way of violent revolution. Matrika Prasad Koirala, the president, was vested with full power of leadership for the period of the insurrection.

LEAVING THE PALACE BY KING TRIBHUVAN:
King Tribhuvan saw that his life was at stake. He wanted to abdicate in favour of his son Mahendra and go to Europe. But he was not allowed to do so. So, he escaped on 6th November 1950 and sought asylum in the Indian Embassy at Kathmandu along with members of the Royal family. Mohan Shumsher tried his best to make the king come back. But he was not successful. Mohan Shumsher called an emergency meeting on 7th November 1950 at Singha Durbar. In that meeting he announced Gyanendra Bir Bikram Shah as the new king of Nepal. In the afternoon, on the same day, Prince Gyandendra Bir Bikram Shah was brought to Hanuman Dhoka Palace and crowned as the king of Nepal. Upon this step of Mohan Shumsher, people became more rebellious. The government of India and England and other countries did not recognize this. On 10th November, two Indian aeroplanes landed at Gauchar Airport and flew back to Delhi with the Royal family. King Tribhuvan was formally welcomed by the Indian prime minister Jawahar Lal Nehru and other high officials.

THE ARMED REVOLUTION:
After the departure of King Tribhuvan to Delhi, the Nepali Congress openly started an armed revolution. On 10th November 1950, pamphlets and leaflets were scattered and on the same night the Liberation Forces of the Nepali Congress led by Thir Bam Malla and Puran Singh made a surprise attack and captured Birgunj and made prisoner of its Governor, Som Shumsher. On 17th November 1950, the insurgents met the Rana troops led by General Yek Raj Shumsher at Parwanipur. Because of the shortage of ammunition, they made a hasty retreat. On 18th November, a big procession of farmers staged a demonstration in Gaur Bazaar. But they were dispersed by the Rana forces. The leader of the procession, Shiva Prasad was killed, and many other persons fell victim to the firing.

On the western front, the insurgents had a remarkable success. Dr. Kunwar Indrajit Singh attacked Bhairahawa. The jails were broken and the Government House was attacked. In the meantime, the insurgent forces got victories at Dang Deukhuri, Jajarkot, Musikot, Kailali, Kanchanpur, Palpa, Gorkha, and other places. The people's government was established in all these place. Rudra Shumsher was made Governor of Palpa.
In the eastern front, also, the insurgents fought bravely Biratnagar, Jhapa, Udaypur, Pashupatinagar, Dhankuta and Bhojpur all fell into the hands of the Nepali Congress and a people's government was established there.

On 3rd December 1950, a delegation of Frank Roberts, the British Deputy High Commission for India and Easter Denning came to Nepal to study the political situation. A big crowd had gathered at Gausher Air[port, and they attacked the visitors, shouting slogans in favour of the exiled king. To disperse the crowd, lathi charges were made, tear gas was used and fire was opened on the demonstrators. Bhogendra Man Singh and Debendra Man were shot dead and many other were wounded. All these events created sendation, not on in nepal but also in other countries.

THE DELHI AGREEMENT:
On November 22, 1950, Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru, the then Prime Minister of India, Officially announced that India was not going to recognize Gyanendra Bir Bikram As the rightful king of Nepal. When Mohan Shumsher saw that the situation was out of his control, he sent Kaisher Shumsher and Bijaya Shumsher to New Delhi for a peace talk In New Delhi, King Tribhuvan, representatives of Nepali Congress and of the Rana Government all sat together to discuss the situation. At last an agreement was reached according to which King Tribhuvan want to form a new ministry, under his leadership, consisting of the Nepali Congress and the Ranas on an equal basis, King Tribhuvan flew back to Nepal, along with the members of the Royal family and the leaders of the Congress Party on 15th February, 1951. On 18th Dec. (7th of Falgun, 2007) the coalition ministry was formed on a parity basis-five from the Ranas and five form the Congress.
Thus the century old family autocracy of the Ranas came to an end and Democracy was introduced under the active leadership of King Tribhuvan

Rise of Ranas

2009-06-23T03:16:00.000-07:00

Rise
King Privthi, founder of the Gurkha Empire, had died in 1775. His heir, 24, would reign only two years. In 1777, the new king was a 2½ boy, and the real rulers were regents. This led to a tradition in Nepal of rule by regents and appointed prime ministers, who gradually attained their own dynastic control. The boy king Rana Bahadur was forced to abdicate on reaching his majority, then returned from exile (1804), executed the PM, and shortly afterward was killed in a quarrel with his cousin (1806), who likewise was killed at once. Girvan Yuddha, the illegitimate son of Rana, died almost immediately after he came of age (1816), so the disastrously inept PM Bhimsen Thapa and his ally, the Regent-Queen, remained in control. King Rajendra Bikram, the third child king in a row, was exiled to India when he reached his majority, then jailed (as was his son) when he attempted to return.

The eclipse of the monarch behind the regent or prime minister was a calamity because the new dictator, Jang Bahadur, was not remotely regarded as legitimate. Evidently, many Nepalis assume he was responsible for the Kot Massacre (1846) However, he abolished the slave trade and undertook several progressive reforms. His regime did align Nepal with the UK very closely, which was difficult to avoid since Jang Bahadur's first order of business was to subordinate the army to the state. During the half-century of intrigue leading up to Jang Bahadur's rule, the military was already semi-Western; it was the most efficient non-European army known to have existed at the time, and enjoyed unmatched prestige. Jang's dynasty, the Ranas, saw the urgent necessity of making this institution professionally subordinate to the regime, as well as technically accomplished enough to ward off conquest of Nepal.

Struggles within the Dynasty
The Shah Dynasty of Nepal reigned under virtual house arrest during the time of the Ranas. Jang Bahadur died in 1877, a full century after the beginning of Nepal's time of troubles. He was succeeded by his younger brother, the unconsensually-spelled Ranaudip Singh (or Ranoddip, or...), who was assassinated after 9 years in office by a relative in what was evidently supposed to have been a palace coup.

According to the writings of Pramod Shamsher Rana under "Rana Nepal, in Insider's view", Junga Bahadur built the Thapathali palace by misusing a large amount of national property after the marriage of his offspring. The palace was decorated with Italian marbles, Belgium glasses, and Victorian furniture. Junga Bahadur thus enjoyed luxurious life at the cost of national treasury. This habit of Jung Bahadur also influenced his offspring. They soon came to be known as drunkards. They imported very expensive liquors from France and Portugal. Junga Bahadur used to enjoy drinks only in the palace, but not in the public places, meetings and parties. But a person called Karabir Khatri suspected him of drinking alcoholic substance during his visit to Britain. Junga Bahadur became angry at this remark and ordered one person to urinate in Karabir's mouth. [Informal Sector Services, Human Rights Yearbook 1999]
Unlike the usual royal minister/scapegoat, Jang Bahadur really was in power, and his fortification of the comprador class was without precedent.

In 1857, Jang Bahadur himself executed two family members (by tearing them to pieces, as it happened) because they were conspiring with the exiled king to oust him. Another interesting connection: in the previous post I mentioned that the 3rd Shah king of Nepal, Rana Bahadur Shah, was killed in 1806 after returning from exile and overthrowing PM Damodar Pande. Since his son was the king—albeit in his minority—the former King Rana Bahadur had himself installed as PM. As mentioned, he was killed by his cousin during a quarrel; the cousin was also killed on the spot, by Bala Narasimha Kunwar. This Bala Narasimha was Jang Bahadur's father. Jang Bahadur [Rana] also shared a name with Rana Bahadur, the boy king whose accession had commenced the Nepali time of troubles. Hereafter, the hereditary prime ministers would have "Jang Bahadur Rana" as part of their name, and nearly all of them were knighted. The Ranas reformed the legal code of Nepal to weaken customs such as caste prohibitions and suttee. The creation of a modern legalistic state has been condemned by many Nepalis since it made the king or his ministers mere autocrats, rather than a socially-embedded institution accountable to the unique needs of the nation.

It's difficult to take seriously the notion that Nepal ever was, or ever could have remained, a benign example of kingship: a vast extended family, in which the monarch is guided by wise traditions and sincere concern for the well-being of his children. This image of kingship is usually drawn from European contact with pre-modern societies, and played back into post-colonial nostalgia. The historical record of constant warfare, however, suggests that earlier modalities of Nepali kingship were scarcely better. The Rana premiers of Nepal were colonial in the sense that they gingerly sought to cultivate favor with the British rulers of India, supported them militarily, and suffered political catastrophe when the British quit India. However, they were also colonial in the sense of preserving an empire of Nepalese over other Nepalese.
Despite their close alignment to the British military establishment, the Rana Era was one of

chronic underachievement:

The Ranas also attended to economic development by founding the Pharping Hydroelectric Company in 1911 and establishing the Nepal Industrial Board, a jute mill, a match factory, two cotton mills, the Nepal Plywood and Bobbin Company, and several rice mills during the 1930s. As for public health, the first tuberculosis clinic was set up in 1934. In view of the population of approximately 6 million in the 1930s, these accomplishments seem pitiful. Almost all Nepalese remained illiterate and uninformed about any part of the world outside their villages or, at best, their valleys. Public health and economic infrastructure had not advanced past medieval levels in most areas, and doing anything about it was proving impossible. Under Bhim Shamsher (reigned 1929-32), fifty people were arrested and fined for setting up a public library. Because the Ranas relied on the goodwill of the army and the British government to support their dictatorship, the army served as a legitimate--and perhaps the most viable--means for Nepalese citizens to achieve upward mobility or to see the world. During World War I (1914-18), the government of Nepal loaned more than 16,000 troops to the British, and 26,000 Nepalese citizens who were part of British Indian regiments fought in France and the Middle East. In gratitude the British government in 1919 bestowed on Nepal an annual payment of 1 million Indian rupees (US$476,000) in perpetuity and in 1920 transformed the British resident in Kathmandu into an envoy. A Treaty of Perpetual Peace and Friendship signed in 1923 confirmed the independence of Nepal and its special relationship with British India. As long as British rule remained stable in India and the army offered a safety valve to release social pressures in Nepal, the Ranas were able to use their total control over internal affairs to isolate their country, a situation that could not long endure.

During the 1930's, political parties formed to oppose the Ranas, but they operated underground or in exile. This was concurrent with political agitation in India against British rule, although in some respects the Rana premiership was more rigid than the British authorities were. The Nepali National Congress gradually became an umbrella group for groups opposed to the Rana, uniting a broad range of interests.
Collapse of Rana Rule

The Ranas' initial reaction to political agitation was to seek military assistance from Britain and the USA. The emissaries of the Rana regime played to Nepal's (actually, the now-traditionalist Rana junta's) special relationship with the UK; early on, it sought to persuade the new Republic of India to duplicate the role of the British in India. Jawaharlal Nehru was understandably reluctant to establish too close a relationship with the tottering Rana Dynasty, and frequently emphasized that "we cannot allow anything to go wrong in Nepal" (6 Dec '50); and so it is ironic that the deal he cut with PM Mohan Shamsher] was cut three months after the banned opposition was driven to armed uprising. The Treaty of Peace and Friendship between India and Nepal therefore was intended to build up the Royal Nepali Army's power.
Juddha Shamsher, in office, tried to purge the system of aristocratic awarding of titles; but he also sought to freeze Nepal in the 19th century, arguing that the influx of foreign ideas was only making his subjects unhappy. His successor and nephew, Padma Shamsher, was soon faced with the inevitable contradictions of rival demands for Nepal. Preserving all those happy Nepalis in the middle ages required repression, and the onset of modern commerce (via worker remittances from India) would entail the passion of capitalist transformation of Nepal. The military was dominated not merely by members of the Kshatriya castes, but officers from the Rana clan itself; all generals, for example, were Rana family members.

Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala (1914-1982), a fairly important exiled Nepalese novelist, became directly involved in the struggle against the Rana regime by returning to the town of Biratnagar and leading a strike (the Biratnagar Hartal) against the regime. The military cracked down violently after 23 days of standoff. Koirala's new political party, the Nepali National Congress, was singled by Padma's successor, Mohan Shamsher (April '48-Nov. '51) for outlawry even after other political parties were allowed to participate in Padma's reformist parliament.
The parliament was in fact a feeble concession to the pro-democracy movement; Mohan Shamsher continued to insist on replacing MPs he disliked, while intimidating the opposition with arrests and reprisals (especially against B.P. Koirala). In November '50, things began to haven very fast: the Nepali opposition parties merged into the Nepali Congress Party, and embraced armed struggle against the Rana regime; King Tribuvhan fled to the Indian embassy in Kathmandu and announced his abdication; and PM Mohan Shamsher proclaimed the baby Gyanendra king. The Terai Plateaux exploded into armed resistance, and Jawaharlal Nehru publicly embraced the revolution a mere 5 months after signing a crucial treaty with the regime it was seeking to replace. Two months later, the revolution was over. Under the terms of the peace agreement, Mohan Shamsher remained PM until he could be replaced democratically. His replacement was B.P. Koirala's brother, Matrika Prasad Koirala.

The Ranas since 1951
After the defeat of "Prime Minister" Mohan Shamsher, the struggle for democracy in Nepal was far from over. The Rana family was itself quite large, and supplied much of the leadership of the military. About a third of the personnel were actually the very caste as the Ranas (and the Shah family). Some of the Ranas had turned against the "A" class (the inner circle of Jang Bahadur's descendants) after the "B" and "C" were denied some of their privileges.
The Ranas appear to have mostly adapted to the revolution. In the 1990's, many returned to Nepal. Some, such as Shri Pashupati Shamsher, are ultra-royalist politicians (i.e., high-ranking officials of the RPP). Others, such as Diamond Shumshere Rana, served in the 1950 revolutionary movement against the Rana dynasty.
Jang Bahadur's great great grandniece (?), Devyani Rana (b.1972), was the woman Crown Prince Dipendra Shah wanted to marry. Since his parents King Birendra and Queen Aiswarya refused, presumably because of the deep bitterness between the Rana and Shah families, Dipendra reportedly massacred the royal household in 1 June 2001. Evidently, this is by no means an unprecedented event in Nepali history.

Expansion of Nepal

2009-06-19T00:44:00.001-07:00

KING PRATAP SINGH SHAH

After the death of Prithvi Narayan Shah, Pratap Singh Shah ascended the throne on 11th January 1775 A.D., at the age of 23. Pratap Singh Shah was the eldest son of Queen Narendra Laxmi. He was born after his father had embarked on the conquest of Kathmandu valley and he grew up during this period when Prithvi Narayan Shah was fighting against Malla kings. Prithvi Narayan Shah had never been able to spend his time with his son. Pratap Singh Shah got education about `Sastra', poetry and music. He did not get any military training though his father always wanted to make him a great warrior.

When he had ascended the throne, his uncle Dal Jit Shah, and his brother Bahadur Shah hatched a conspiracy against him. But the plot was detected and Bahadur Shah was imprisoned in Nuwakot jail while Dal Jit Shah ran away. Bahadur Shah, however, was released later at the request of the Chief Priest Gajaraj Misra and was allowed to go to Bettiah.

Pratap Singh was a man of peaceful temperament. He was inclined to peace rather than to wage war. He maintained friendly relations with his neighbours as far as possible. He concluded a commercial treaty with Tibet in Sept. 1775. He settled the disputes with Tibet over the countrfeited Nepali coins peacefully. He sent troops under the leadership of Kazi Abhiman Sing Basnet to Tanahun. He conquered it and annexed Upardang Gadi, and Chitwan. He attacked Athinga, the king of Morang 17 times. On his 18th attempt he succeeded in defeating him. He waged ware with Sikkim but could not conquer it. Thus, Pratap Singh Shah could contribute a little to the unification of the country started by his father, Prithvi Narayan Shah.
Pratap Singh wanted to reform the internal administration of the country. In this task, he took Kazi Swarup Singh Karki into his confidence. With his advice, Pratap Singh divided the lands of Nepal valley into 4 categories in order of productivity viz., `Awal', `Doyam', `Seem' and `Chahar' and planned to lower the revenue to the rate of one-sixth of the gross product.

Pratap Singh was very interested in Tantricism. With the help of a Nepali scholar, he wrote a book called `Purascharyanava'. He made for the first time the custom of erecting a Linga (pillar) in the Indrajatra festival at Hanuman Dhoka. He had also organised a conference of Sanskrit scholars at Balaju, in which, it is said that scholars from about 12 countries had participated.
After reigning for two years and ten months he died on 7th November 1777 (1834 B.S.). Thus, Pratap Singh became the ruler of the shortest tenure in the modern period of the history of Nepal.

KING RANA BAHADUR SHAH
King Rana Bahadur Shah was born on 25th May 1775 A.D. and was crowned as king of Nepal on 17th November 1777 A.D. His regency was held by Queen Mother Rajendra Laxmi for 8 years and uncle Bahadur Shah for 9 years. In mid April 1784 A.D. Rana Bahadur Shah took the power of government into his own hand.
Struggle for Power

After the death of Pratap Singh Shah, Bahadur Shah returned to Nepal from Bettiah. He began to carry on the administration as regent of King Rana Bahadur Shah. Kazi Swarup Singh Karki had fled to India to escape from punishment. For sometime, both Rajendra Laxmi and Bahadur Shah carried on the joint administtration. Bahadur Shah began to think of conquering Baise and Choubise Rajya. In the mean time, the quarrel began between Rajendra Laxmi and Bahadur Shah. Rajendra Laxmi always suspected that Bahadur Shah would take the revenge for the harm done to him by her husband Pratap Singh Shah, Bahadur Shah modernized the Army and collected Arms and ammunition. Rajendra Laxmi strongly opposed the work of Bahadur Shah. So with the help of Sarbajit Rana, she suddenly arrested and imprisoned Bahadur Shah. But sometime later, with the request of Guru Gagraj Mishra, Bahadur Shah was freed. Bahadur Shah again began to start the work of administration. Then, he arrested Rajendra Laxmi and killed Sarbajit Rana. Bahadur Shah turned his attention to the expansion in the west. He gave order to Bamsa Raj Pande to attack Tanahun. Bansa Raj Pande attacked and captured Sur, the capital of Tanahun. The Gorkhali commander continued his counter attack on March 1779 A.D. The combined Choubisi Army attacked Someswor and got victory. Hearing that news, Bahadur Shah reached there, attacked Someswor and captured it. Meanwhile, Rajendra Laxmi came to power with the help of Bal Bhadra Shah (son of Mohadam Kirti Shah). She took the whole responsibility of administration as a regent. Bahadur Shah became helpless, he went to Bettiah again.

RAJENDRA LAXMI
Rajendra Laxmi was the mother of Rana Bahadur Shah. At the death of her husband King Pratap Singh Shah, her minor son Rana Bahadur Shah was put on the throne. So, Rajendra Laxmi began to rule in the name of her son, as a regent. Pratap Singh Shah had exiled his brother Bahadur Shah during his reign. Bahadur Shah was spending his days at Bettiah. Rajendra Laxmi called Bahadur Shah from Bettiah and for some time they ruled jointly as co-regents in the name of Rana Bahadur Shah. But misunderstanding developed between Bahadur Shah and Rajendra Laxmi which led to the imprisonment of one by the other, in turn.

When Rajendra Laxmi was released from her imprisonment, she exiled Bahadur Shah and began to rule as the sole regent of Rana Bahadur Shah. Taking the advantage of such internal troubles in the capital, the Chiefs of Chaubisi Rajya, under the leadership of the king of Palpa, made an attempt to invade Gorkha in 1781 A.D. Rajendra Laxmi sent a troop under the leadership of Amar Singh Thapa. Amar Singh Thapa defeated the combined forces of Chaubisi Rajya at Chiplete and then at Sirhanchowk and Tarkughat. Bir Mardan Shah of Lamjung was so afraid of the Gorkha troops that he ran away from the kingdom, without facing them in the battle. Thus, both Lamjung and Tanahun were annexed to the kingdom of Nepal in 1782 A.D. The king of Kaski, Siddhi Narayan Shah also surrendered before the Gorkha troops.

Flushed with success, Rajendra Laxmi sent a troop under the leadership of Kazi Abhiman Singh Basnet to invade Palpa. Taking this advantage, Kirtibam Malla of Parbat attacked Lamjung. The Gorkha troops had to retreat from Palpa to defend Lamjung. A fierce battle was fought in July 1784 A.D. between the troops of Gorkha and Parbat at Makaidanda. Ultimately, Parbat was defeated. Then the Gorkha troops attacked Bhirkot, Rishing Satahun, Garahun, Dhor, Paiya and Charikot and annexed them all to the kingdom of Nepal.

Rajendra Laxmi died on 13 July 1785 A.D. During her short regency period of nine years, Rajendra Laxmi contributed much to the expansion of the territory of Nepal. During her regency, Karna Sen's widow also made an unsuccessful attempt to control over Kirat state in the east.

BAHADUR SHAH
Bahadur Shah was the second son of Prithvi Narayan Shah. King Pratap Singh Shah was afraid of his growing popularity. So, Bahadur Shah was imprisoned and then exiled. He spent some time in Bettiah. At the news of the death of Pratap Singh Shah he came back to Kathmandu and helped the regent Queen-Mother Rajendra Laxmi in the administration. He bacame so powerful that he could have sat on the throne himself had he so desired. But he was perfectly true to the baby king and did not think to dethrone him.

When the regent queen mother died on 13 July 1785 A.D., Bahadur Shah came back from Bettiah and resumed the charge of the government as a regent to the baby king. He found that some of the states of Chaubisi Rajya were annexed to the kingdom by the regent Queen Mother Rajendra Laxmi. Now he determined to annex the rest of the states. Realizing the strength of the Palpa State, he maintained a matrimonial relation with Palpa, marrying the daughter of King Mahadatta Sen, the king of Palpa. Now, Bahadur Shah was convinced that the king of Palpa would not intervene in his policy of expansionism. He formed a strong force and invaded Gulmi, Khanchi, Dhurkot, Kushma and Baglung, one after another.
Then Bahadur Shah sent troops to the far-western side. The Gorkha troops under the command of Damodar Pande and Amar Singh Thapa invaded Piuthan, Dang, Jajarkot, Musikot, Dailekh, Achham and Doti. In this way, by 1790 A.D. the western border of Nepal reached up to the Mahakali river. The Gorkha troops also invaded Almorah, Garhwal and Kumaon. In the meantime, the Nepal - China war broke out and Bahadur Shah sent a message to his troops to come back to the capital concluding a treaty with Garhwal. So, the victorious Gorkha troops had to retreat to the capital in 1791 A.D.

The Gorkha troops also marched eastwards. They invaded Illam and reached up to Sikkim. They gallantly annexed some portions of Sikkim to the kingdom of Nepal in 1789 A.D. Thus, under Bahadur Shah, Nepal grew from a small Gorkha kingdom into a mighty, big Nepal. Nepal's territory was extended to Tibet on the north, to Kashmir and Dehradun on the west, to Bhutan on the east and to the British Indian territories on the south. The nine years of Bahadur Shah's Mukhtiyarship was really the golden age of Nepal's unification. Prithvi Narayan Shah had to labour 25 years in the conquest of the valley. Rajendra Laxmi had spent 8 years for the conquest of western tiny states (Choubise). Bahadur Shah was able to conquer the whole far western side within 9 years.

In the year 1794 A.D. when King Rana Bahadur Shah attained the age of 20 years, he removed Bahadur Shah from the regency and began to rule personally. In course of time, Rana Bahadur Shah increased the land revenue in the country which was opposed by the people. Bahadur Shah also opposed it. So, the king became angry with Bahadur Shah. The king asked Bahadur Shah to submit the account of the Nepal-Tibet war expenses. Bahadur Shah needed some time to do it, which he was not given. Bahadur Shah also corresponded with China about his visit to Peking. Rana Bahadur Shah suspected his loyalty and imprisoned him. Bahadur Shah was greatly shocked at the treatment of the king towards him who always had fought for the good of the king and the country. Bahadur Shah is said to have committed suicide on 14 Asar 1854 B.S. (June 1797 A.D.). Such was the tragic end of a true patriot, a great warrior and a loyal servant.

KING RANA BAHADUR SHAH
Rana Bahadur Shah began to rule personally at the age of twenty. He had three wives-Bidya Laxmi (the princess of Gulmi), who was also known as Raj Rajeswari Devi, Subarna Prabha and Kantamati. Later on he married Chandravati, the younger sister of Kantamati in 1804 A.D. and again another one called Tripura Sundari Devi. Raj Rejeswari had no child. The second wife Subarna Prabha had a son called Ranoddhat Shah. He discarded both these wives in favour of Kantamati, the daughter of Tirhut Brahman, who possessed uncommon beauty. She also gave birth to a son, named Girbana Juddha Bikram Shah on 8 March 1799 A.D. Rana Bahadur Shah declared Girbana Juddha Bikram Shah as his heir apparent, setting aside the rightful claim of his first born son Ranodhat Shah. In this task, he had taken the help of the king of Palpa.
Rana Bahadur Shah, under the name of Nirgunanda Swami began to pass his days in Kashi. Bhimsen Thapa accompanied him. He wanted to get back his throne with the help of Bhimsen Thapa. With the assurance given by Lord Wellesly, the Governor-General of the East India Company, he came to Nepal after four years. Damodar Pande went to imprison Rana Bahadur Shah at Thankot, but the troops took Rana Bahadur Shah's side. Because of the presence of mind of Bhimsen Thapa, Damodar Pande was arrested and ultimately beheaded. Thus, Rana Bahadur Shah came to power and began to rule as a regent of Girbana Juddha Bikram Shah. Bhimsen Thapa was made Prime Minister.

As Rana Bahadur Shah grew older, he became more cruel and violent. His faithful wife Raj Rajeswari was driven away to Helambu instead of rewarding her for her services to him. The `Birta' (trust lands) of the Brahmans were confiscated in 1862 B.S. (1804 A.D.) which is known as `Basatti Haran'. In the meantime, an epidemic of small-pox broke out. Acting on his whims, he drove out of the town all the children who were not vaccinated. The courtiers grew discontented with him at his violent and whimsical acts and started hatching a plot against him. At that time, Rana Bahadur Shah ordered his brother Sher Bahadur Shah to go to war. But Sher Bahadur Shah refused to obey his order. so Rana Bahadur Shah ordered for his imprisonment. Then in Baisakh 1863 B.S. (1806 A.D.) Sher Bahadur, the king's brother, at one stroke of his sword, despatched Rana Bahadur Shah. Sher Bahadur, however, was killed by Kazi Bal Narsingh, the bodyguard of the king.

The reign of Rana Bahadur Shah was full of events and various uncommon activities. King Rana Bahadur Shah is still remembered in the villages and remote areas. It is believed that the coin of Rana Bahadur Shah relieves the labour pain of a lady and the baby is born if the mother is given the water in which the coin of Rana Bahadur's reign is dropped.

NEPAL - TIBET - CHINA WAR
Tibet had been using Nepali coins since the time of the Malla kings. When Prithvi Narayan Shah had launched the economic blockade to the Kathmandu Valley, Jaya Prakash Malla of Kathmandu had to face an economic crisis. So he had minted a lower quality of coins mixed with copper. Again, when Prithvi Narayan Shah conquered the Kathmandu Valley and firmly established the rule of the Shah Dynasty in Nepal, he minted coins with pure silver. So, the two types of coins were found in the Tibetan market. On the plea of counterfeited coins, Tibet started spreading rumours that it was in a position to attack Nepal. The Nepalese merchants in Tibet were harassed and Tibet started sending salt to Nepal mixed with dust. Nepal wanted to settle the dispute by peaceful means. So, a delegation was sent to Tibet which was rejected by the Tibetans. It was a direct challenge to Nepal.

In the year 1789 A.D., Bahadur Shah sent Gorkha troops under the joint command of Damodar Pande and Bam Shah to attack Tibet. The Gorkha troops entered Tibet through Kuti and reached as far as Tashi Humpo (about 410 km. from Kuti). A fierce battle was fought at Shikarjong in which the Tibetans were badly defeated. Now, Tesu Lama and Shakia Lama requested the Gorkha troops to have peace talks. So, the Gorkha troops left Shikarjong and went towards Kuti and Kerung.

When the Chinese Emperor heard the news of the invasion of Tibet by Nepal, he sent a large troop of the Chinese Army under the command of General Chanchu. General Chanchu came to know the situation from the Tibetan Lamas. He decided to stay in Tibet till the dispute was settled.

The representatives of Tibet and Nepal met at Khiru in 1790 A.D. to have peace talks. Int he talks Tibet was held responsible for the quarrel. So, Tibet had to give compensation to Nepal for the loss incurred in the war. Tibet had also to pay tribute to Nepal a sum of Rs. 50,001 every year. Nepal had to give back to Tibet all the territories acquired during the war. The Nepalese representatives were given Rs. 50,001 as the first instalment, so giving back the territories - Khiru, Kuti, Longa, Jhunga and Falak, came back to Nepal. But, Tibet no longer followed the terms of the treaty. It refused to pay the tributes from the very second year of the conclusion of the treaty. As a result, Nepal's war with Tibet continued.

As Tibet had refused to pay the tribute to Nepal, Bahadur Shah sent a troop under Abhiman Singh Basnet to Kerung and another troop under the command of Damodar Pande to Kuti in 1791 A.D. Damodar Pande attacked Digarcha and captured the property of the monastery there. He also arrested the minister of Lhasa, Dhoren Kazi and came back to Nepal. As soon as this news was heard by the Chinese Emperor, he sent a strong troop of 70,000 soldiers under the leadership of Tungthyang to defend Tibet. Thus in the year 1792 the Nepal - Tibet war turned into a Nepal - China war.

The Chinese troops asked Nepal to give back the property to Tibet which was looted at Digarcha. They also demanded them to give back Summur Lama who had taken asylum in Nepal. But Nepal turned a deaf ear to these demands. So, the huge Chinese troop marched towards Nepal. Following the bank of the Trishuli river they reached Nuwakot. The Nepalese troops tried to defend the aggression of China at several places. There was heavy losses on both sides in the war.

At that time, Nepal had to fight at three places. Sikkim had started creating trouble in the eastern border. In the far-western side, the war with Garhwal was continuing. At the same time, the kings of Achham, Doti and Jumla had started revolting against Nepal. Bahadur Shah was so busy that he could not arrange properly for the defence against the Chinese aggression.
As the Chinese troops had reached south of the Betravati river, near Nuwakot, it was difficult for the Nepalese troops to wait for them at Kathmandu. Though there were only about 200 soldiers left at Kathmandu they boldly resisted the Chinese troops at Betravati. It was the night of 19th September 1792 when the Nepalese troops attacked the Chinese at Jitpurfedi. They carried flaming torches in their hands, tied the torches on the branches of trees, and they also tied the flaming torches on the horns of domestic animals and drove them towards the enemy. The Chinese troops thought that they were surrounded from all sides and fled away. Many Chinese soldiers were killed, many were injured. China suffered a heavy loss that night.

Now the Chinese commander Tungthyang lost all hope to march forward. He sent a proposal to the Government of Nepal for a treaty. Bahadur Shah also wanted to have cordial relations with China. He readily accepted the proposal and they concluded a friendly treaty at Betravati in 1792. The terms of the treaty were as follows:
1. Both Nepal and Tibet will accept the suzerainty of China
2. The Government of Tibet will pay the compensation of the property of the Nepalese merchants which were looted by the Tibetans at Lhasa.
3. The Nepali citizens will have the right to visit, trade, and establish industries in any part of Tibet and China.
4. In case of any dispute between Nepal and Tibet, China will intervene and settle the dispute at the request of both the countries.
5. China will help Nepal defend against any external aggression.
6. Both Nepal and Tibet will have to pay tribute to China every five years of their products.
7. In its return, China will also send friendly gifts to both the countries and the people who carry the tribute will be treated as important guests and will be provided every facility.

KING GIRBANA JUDDHA BIKRAM SHAH
The Coronation ceremony of Girbana Juddha Bikram Shah took place in 1797 A.D., but his personal rule began only after the assassination of his father Rana Bahadur Shah in 1806 A.D. Bhimsen Thapa, however, continued to be the Prime Minister. He instituted an inquiry to find out the real culprit behind the assassination of Rana Bahadur Shah. The king of Palpa, Prithipal Sen, Kazi Tribhuvan Khawas, Jagat Pande, Bidur Shahi and Kazi Narasingh Gurung were found guilty and were put to death.

Bhimsen Thapa, then sent a troop under the command of his father Amar Singh Thapa, in 1806 A.D. to Palpa, and thus Palpa, the last of the Chaubisi Rajya was annexed to the kingdom of Nepal. Amar Singh Thapa was made the Governor of Palpa who annexed Butwal and Shiva Raj to the kingdom of Nepal. The annexation of Butwal and Shiva Raj was opposed by the British and they prepared for war against Nepal.

ANGLO-NEPAL WAR
By the end of the 18th century, the British East India Company was firmly established in India. The East India Company had occupied almost all the princely States of India. They were looking for an opportunity to enter Nepal. The British were welcomed to Nepal during the Malla rulers. But Prithvi Narayan Shah did not allow them to stay in Nepal and a troop of British soldiers under the command of General Kinloch was badly defeated by the army of Prithvi Narayan Shah at Sindhuli in 1765 A.D. So, the British were aware of the strength and courage of the Gorkha soldiers. During the regency period of Bahadur Shah, East India Company put forward a proposal that the British might be allowed to trade in the boarder areas between Nepal and Tibet. But Bahadur Shah rejected that proposal. In 1792 A.D., a commercial treaty was concluded between Nepal and British India, but that was not enforced. Later, when Rana Bahadur Shah was in Banaras, Damodar Pande concluded a commercial treaty in 1801 A.D. That treaty did not favour British interest. East India Company always tried to maintain friendly relations with Nepal.
The East India Company wanted to trade in Tibet. The only way to Tibet was through Nepal and Nepal would never allow the British to go to Tibet through her territory. Moreover, giving permission to the British to go to Tibet through Nepal meant loosing her own market, i.e., Tibet.

In such a situation, the East India Company thought to threaten Nepal with war.
Another reason for British aggression to Nepal was that they wanted to reside in cool and healthy hill stations like Dehradun, Kumaon, Shimla and Darjeeling. These places were under Nepal at that time. But the immediate cause of the war was annexation of Shiva Raj and Butwal to Nepal in 1806 A.D. For some time there were meetings and talks to settle the disputes over Shiva Raj and Butwal. Ultimately, in 1814 A.D. the East India Company declared war against Nepal.
Preparation for War

Before the declaration of war, British government collected the valuable information about Nepal. Captain Knox himself had been instructed by the Governor-General to obtain detail information of Nepal, its internal and external defence. Lord Hastings, the Governor- General of the East India Company, prepared a detailed plan to attack Nepal at five points:
(i) A regiment consisting of 6,000 soldiers, equipped with 16 pieces of ordnance under the command of General Octorlony, marched from Ludhiana to attack Nepal from the far western border in order to engage Kazi Amar Singh Thapa's forces.
(ii) A regiment of 3,500 soldiers, under the command of Major-General Gillespie was to invade Dehradum, Garhwal, Srinagar and Nahan through Sohranpur.
(iii) A regiment of 4,000 soldiers, under the command of Major-General John Sullivan Wood marched from Gorakhpur to invade Palpa.
(iv) Major - General Laitor with his troop of 2,000 soldiers marched from Purnea to attack Biratnagar. He was also given the responsibility to incite Sikkim to invade Nepal from the eastern side.
(v) Major-General Morley with his troop of 8,000 soldiers equipped with 26 pieces of ordnance, marched from Bettiah to attack Makawanpur.
To fight with Gorkha soldiers, the British collected 23,500 troops, later augmented to 26,000 troops, well equipped with guns and cannons. The British Army was divided into 5 units. On the war only Ochtorlony was able to adopt warfare. The remaining 3 commanders, Gillespie was killed in Nala Pani war, Wood was completely discredited, and Morley deserted. Lord Hasting borrowed Rupees 2,50,00,000 from the Nawab of Oudh. In the Anglo-Nepal war, Nepal government sent 12,000 troops under the command of Amar Singh Thapa and Balabhadra Kunwar.
During the reign of King Girbana Juddha Bir Bikram Shah, the British Government began to think of occupying the Terai region of Nepal. So the British Governor-General Lord Hastings ordered Nepal Government to leave Butwal and the 22 villages within 25 days. After that, General Thapa supported the idea of war. He knew that the British Government wanted to occupy Butwal and Shiv Raj at any cost. According to the plan, Lord Hastings ordered to unite the Bengal Army to occupy Butwal and 22 villages. The Governor of Palpa remained silent and was waiting for an order from Kathmandu. Some days later, the Palpa Governor got an order from the centre, then they attacked British Army. 18 British soldiers were killed and the rest fled from the battlefield. After that Lord Hastings declared war against Nepal on 1st November 1814 A.D.

BATTLE OF KHALANGA (NALA PANI)
Lord Hastings, the then Governor-General of India, declared war on Nepal on 1st November 1814. But ten days before the declaration of war, Gillespie, entered Dehradun. Balbhadra was in charge of the fort of Khalanga. He had only six hundred persons with him, including women and children. Fighting broke out between the English and the Nepalese troops. Gillespie was killed in the battle. The Nepalese troops hurled stones and logs of wood upon the enemy against their shower of bullets. General Maubi, who succeeded Gillespie, cut off the sources of water supply to the fort of Khalanga. As a result, lot of people died inside the fort for want of water. When the survivors, about 70 in number, saw that they has no hope of surviving, opened the gate, came out of the fort, and ran towards a stream nearby on 30th November 1814 A.D. The British troop was surprised to see this. After they had quenched their thirst, the brave Balabhadra said to the Britishers: "Go and occupy the fort. We have deserted it". When the British troops entered the fort, they found there nothing but corpses. In this way, fighting for 39 days, the Nepalese troops went away, but did not surrender before the British troops. The British left an inscription on a stone.........'As a Tribute of Respect for our Gallant Adversary Balabhadra Singh and his brave Gorkhas........" This inscription still sings the glory of Bir Balabhadra and his soldiers.

BATTLE OF JAITHAK
Jaspau Thapa and Ranajor Singh Thapa were in charge of the defence of Jaithak. The British troops had to suffer humiliation at the hands of the Nepalese troops in the battle of Khalanga, and they marched towards Jaithak. The Nepalese troops had a total strength of two thousand two hundred persons, including women and children. They were attacked from two sides by six thousand soldiers of British troops on 25th Dec. 1814 A.D. The British troops were armed with guns, whereas the Nepalese had `Khukuri' in their hands. The British troops suffered heavy loses in the battle. The British troops, along with the Marathas, under the command of General Martindale, unsuccessfully attacked Jaithak three times.

BATTLE OF PARSA
General Morley's troops advanced to attack Kathmandu through Hetauda. He divided his troops into three groups. he sent one from the right and another from the left, and the third unit was commanded by Morley himself. All the units tried to advance towards Kathmandu. The Nepali troops were commanded by Rana Bir Singh Thapa. He stayed at Makawanpur. All of a usudden, the Nepali captain Sarbaju Rana and Shumsher Rana attacked upon the British troops in Parsa and Samanpur. The British commander had never thought that the attack would be so quick and sudden. The British commander was killed and his troops ran away. General Morley himself fled. From that attack much arms and ammunition fell into the hands of Nepali troops.

BATTLE OF JEETGARH
Major-General Wood was planning to invade Nuwakot, but suddenly the Nepalese troops, under the leadership of Ujir Singh, fell upon the British troops at Jeetgarh (near Butwal) and shattered their plans. The British troops were unable to cope with the surprise attack, so they had to run away from the battle-field. Major-General Wood now simply planned to defend Butwal and Gorakhpur. After three months, General Wood attacked Butwal again. But the Gorkhali troops drove the British troops out.

BATTLE OF GADWAN
Amar Singh Thapa was entrusted with the task of defending the west. A regiment of six thousand British troops made a surprises attack upon five hundred Nepalese troops and captured Nalagarh and Ramgarh. Amar Singh Thapa had stationed his troops at Gadwan. The Nepalese troops took the offensive. The British troops were defeated and fled. Octorlony wrote to Hastings for reinforcements. Even with reinforcements, every attack of Octorlony was repulsed. Amar Singh Thapa showed an uncommon bravery in this battle.

BATTLE OF DEUTHAL
The seventy year old Bhakti Thapa was in charge of the defence of Deuthal and Suryagarh. The nearby Malun fort also was not safe. Deuthal was surrounded by British troops. In such a situation, leaving his small child in the care of Amar Singh Thapa, Bhakti Thapa marched forward with a naked sword beheading the enemies. The British troops were killing the Nepalese troops with guns and cannons to the enemy's side. In the meantime, he was shot by a bullet in his thigh and he fell down. The British troops were surprised to see the bravery of Bhakti Thapa. They saluted the corpse of Bhakti Thapa for his bravery even though he was their enemy.
Now the British were ready to negotiate peace terms. The Nepal Government also, without the knowledge and consent of Amar Singh Thapa, proposed a treaty. Actually, the treaty was in favour of the British, and according to the terms of the treaty Nepal had to suffer a great loss of her territory. When Amar Singh Thapa heard this, he sent a letter to Kathmandu protesting the proposed treaty. The treaty was rejected when it was put before the meeting of the courtiers.
Now the British were ready to negotiate peace terms. The Nepal Government also, without the knowledge and consent of Amar Singh Thapa, proposed a treaty. Actually, the treaty was in favour of the British, and according to the terms of the treaty Nepal had to suffer a great loss of her territory. When Amar Singh Thapa heard this, he sent a letter to Kathmandu protesting the proposed treaty. The treaty was rejected when it was put before the meeting of the courtiers.

TREATY OF SUGAULI, 1815
After the Anglo-Nepal war, a treaty of peace and friendship was signed between the government of Nepal and the East India company. It is popularly known as "The Treaty of Sugauli, 1815". It was agreed upon on 2nd December 1815 by Gajraj Misra and Chandra Sekhar Upadhayay, on behalf of the government of Nepal, and Lt. Col P. Bradshaw, on behalf of the East India company. The signed copies of the treaty were exchanged on 4th March. 1816 at Makawanpur by Chandra Sekhar Upadhayay and General Octorlony. The terms of the treaty were as follows:-
1. There shall be perpetual peace and friendship between the East India company and the king of Nepal.
2. The king of Nepal will renounce all claim to the lands which were the subject of discussion between the two States before the war; and will acknowledge the right of the company to the sovereignty of those lands.
3. The king of Nepal will cede to the East India company in perpetuity all the under mentioned territories:-
(i) The whole of low lands between the rivers Kali and Rapti. (ii) The whole of low lands between Rapti and Gandaki, except Butwal. (iii) The whole of low lands between Gandaki and Koshi in which the authority of the East India company has been established. (iv) The whole of low lands between the rivers Mechi and Teesta. (v) The whole of territories within the hills eastward of the Mechi river. The aforesaid territory shall be evacuated by the Gorkha troops within forty days from this date.
4. With a view to indemnify the chiefs and Bhardars of Nepal, whose interest will suffer by the alienation of the lands ceded by the foregoing Article (No. 3 above), the East India company agrees to settle pensions to the aggregate amount of two lakhs of rupees per annum on such chiefs as may be decided by the king of Nepal.
5. The king of Nepal renounces for himself, his heirs, and successors, all claim to the countries lying to the West of the River Kali, and engaged never to have any concern with those countries or the inhabitants thereof.
6. The king of Nepal engages never to molest or disturb the king of Sikkim in the possession of his territories. If any difference shall arise between Nepal and Sikkim, it shall be referred to the arbitration of the East India company.
7. The king of Nepal hereby engages never to take or retain in his service any British subject, nor the subject of any European or American State, without the consent of the British Government.
8. In order to secure and improve the relations of amity and peace hereby established between Nepal and Britain (East India company), it is agreed that accredited Ministers from each shall reside at the court of the other.
9. This treaty shall be ratified by the King of Nepal within 15 days from this date, and the ratification shall be delivered to Lt. Col. Bradshaw, who engages to obtain and deliver to the king the ratification of the Governor-General within 20 days, or sooner, if practicable.
In fact, this treaty of Suguali was in favour of the East India Company and Nepal had to suffer a heavy loss of her territory. So, a subsequent agreement was made in December 1816 according to which Nepal got all the low lands (Terai) from Mechi, in the east, to Mahakali, in the west. Therefore, the indemnity of two lakhs of rupees ceased to continue. A land survey was also proposed to fix the boundary between the two States.

KING RAJENDRA BIKRAM SHAH
After the end of Anglo - Nepal war small pox and chicken pox epidemic spread in Nepal. Many people died of smallpox and chicken pox. On 20th November 1816 king Girbana Juddha, 2 years old Rajendra Bikram Shah became the king of Nepal. As the new king was of a tender age, Tripura Sundari, the royal baby's grandmother, continued to act as Regent.

BHIMSEN THAPA
Bhimsen Thapa was born in 1775 A.D. at Borlong. He was the son of Kazi Amar Singh Thapa. He had accompanied Rana Bahadur Shah to Kashi. Rana Bahadur Shah had great faith in him. It was because of his superior diplomacy that Rana Bahadur Shah could come back to Nepal, and because of the practical wisdom of Bhimsen Thapa, Damodar Pande was made a prisoner and ultimately killed. He ruled as Prime Minister for a period of 34 years, serving three generations of king in succession. He extended the territory of Nepal far and wide. The Anglo - Nepal war broke out in his time.
His administration was wise and enlightened. In order to retain the independence and sovereignty of Nepal he had to balance the Chinese and the British power. He even appealed to the native states of India, China, Tibet, Burma, Iran and other countries for Asian unity against the Western Imperialistic elements. He was all in all in the kingdom till 1832, when the Queen Mother Tripura Sundari died.
REFORMS OF BHIMSEN THAPA
General Bhimsen Thapa brought various reforms in the country with the consent of Queen Lalit Tripura Sundari :
a) He fixed the market rate of food grains and other commodities, he made the measurement of mana, pathi etc. He established many selling depos for the sale of timber. b) He tried to develop trade and industry, so he passed different kinds of law for the development of trade and industry. He tried to develop new towns in different parts of the country.c) He developed the postal services. d) He made public parks, garden, roads, bridges and golden and silver doors in the temple of Pashupatinath. He built the temple of Satyaswor Mahadev in Ridi. e) In the Judiciary, he set up law courts in different parts of the country. He did a land survey and divided the kingdom into several districts and appointed new officers for the administration. f) He had controlled the system of selling children in Magar tribe. He tried to abolish slavery as well. g) Bhimsen Thapa built Dharahara and Sundhara for the memory of Queen Lalit Tripura Sundari.h) Bhimsen Thapa re-organized the Nepalese Army on modern line. He established cantonments, army barracks and gave military training to the troops. He introduced new uniform which were designed for the army. i) In Nepal, there were certain systems which allowed one to marry one's sister-in law and among the Limbus, one to marry one's mother in law. Bhimsen Thapa passed laws forbidding such evil systems. j) He stopped the system to take more interest from the debtors. He was successful to circulate the Nepalese coin in Tibet.
FALL OF BHIMSEN THAPA
The death of Queen Mother Tripura Sundari marked the beginning of the downfall of Bhimsen Thapa. The appointment of Mathbar Singh Thapa as a general excited the jealousy and suspicion of the Pandes. Meanwhile, in 1833, a terrible earthquake took place and Kathmandu valley suffered a heavy loss of life and property. Bagmati river was over flooded. Bhimsen Thapa was held responsible for such natural calamities. In order to remove him from power, Bhimsen Thapa was sent as an envoy of the Nepal Government to Calcutta.
After three years, Bhimsen Thapa was recalled to Kathmandu. King Rajendra Bikram Shah had come of age and his two queens, Samrajya Laxmi Devi and Rajya Laxmi Devi, were mainly responsible for handling the affairs of the country. In the meantime, Samrajya Laxmi Devi's third son, Devendra Bikram Shah died all of a sudden. The enemies of Bhimsen Thapa accused him of poisoning the prince to death.
King Rajendra dismissed Bhimsen Thapa and then Rana Jung Pande was appointed in the post of Prime Ministership. Bhimsen Thapa went back to Borlang. After some days, Pandit Ranga Nath and Chautariya Fatte Jung began to fill the ears of the king against Rana Jung Pande. King Rajendra had no self-confidence. He didn't apply his conscience but listened to others. He dismissed Rana Jung Pande and appointed Pandit Ranga Nath on the post of Prime Ministership. Rana Jung became commander-in-chief. The elder queen was in favour of Rana Jung Pande. She demanded that Rana Jung Pande should become Prime Minister. King Rajendra refused to fulfill the demand of the elder queen. She left the palace and began to live Devpatan. The senior queen's aim was to strengthen the position of her son, with the help of Rana Jung Pande. The king was weak minded man. He could not give any decision. So Ranga Nath gave his resignation. Then Chautariya Puskar Shah became the prime minister. He did not get any help to conduct the administration. So he resigned from the post of prime ministership. Rana Jung Pande was re-appointed to the post of prime ministership.
Now, he thought to remove Bhimsen Thapa for ever. prime minister Rana Jung Pande advised the king to call Bhimsen Thapa to Kathmandu for taking some advice. When Bhimsen Thapa came to Kathmandu, he was put into jail. The properties of his kith and kin were confiscated. Some false documents were made against Bhimsen Thapa. Bhimsen Thapa heard in jail that his wife would be taken undressed round the city. So he preferred death before dishonour, and committed suicide on 28 July 1839 A.D.
After the death of Bhimsen Thapa, Prime Minister succeeded one another rapidly. The Senior Queen Samrajya Laxmi, exercised supreme power. She began to prepare for war with the British, but the British resident in Nepal, Hodgson, averted the conflict. In spite of it, the willful queen ordered her troops to invade British territory and nearly one hundred villages in Ram Nagar were occupied. When the East India Company warned king Rajendra about the possible consequences of such aggression, the Nepalese troops agreed to evacuate the territory. Rana Jung Pande was accused of folly, and so he was replaced by Ranga Nath Paudyal as Prime Minister.

Unification of Nepal

2009-06-19T00:39:00.001-07:00

The Unification

Some 300 years ago, the kingdom of Nepal was divided into small States and Principalities. The tiny rulers had no unity among themselves. They often quarreled with one another for territorial integrity and sovereignty.

The Kathmandu valley itself was divided into three kingdoms-- Kathmandu, Bhaktapur and Patan. There were at least three powerful kingdoms in the east-Makawanpur, Vijaypur and Chandandi. Similarly, there were 24 Principalities in the western-Gandaki region known as Chaubisi Rajya, and 22 Principalities in the far western--Karnali region known as Baisi Rajya. The 24 Principalities (Chaubisi Rajya) were as follows:- Gorkha, Lamjung, Tanahun, Kaski, Nuwakot, Dhor, Satahun, Garahun, Rishing, Ghiring, Paiyun, Parbat, Galkot, Palpa, Gulmi, Argha, Khanchi, Musikot, Isma, Dhurkot, Bajhang, Bhirkot, Piuthan, and Butwal. Lidewise, the 22 Principalities in the far- western Karnali region were as under:- Jumla, Doti, Jajarkot, Bajura, Musikot, Gajur, Biskot, Malneta, Thalahara, Dailekh, Dullu, Duryal, Dang, Sallyana, Chilli, Phalawagh, Jehari, Darnar, Atbis Gotam, Majal, Gurnakot, and Rukum. Different historians have listed different names of these Chaubisi and Baisi Rajya. However, on the basis of the names given by Balchandra Sharma, Kirkpatrick and Hamilton, these names are commonly used.
There was a strong need to consolidate all these states into a Nation. The credit for this consolidation goes to the Shah kings of the Gorkha kingdom. The Gorkha kingdom, thus, turned into a united Nepal, just as Prussia was turned into the German Empire, Sardinia into Italy, Castela into Spain, and Wessex into Great Britain.

Prithvi Narayan Shah sent his force under the command of Kazi Biraj Thapa to attack Nuwakot. Biraj Thapa did not attack immediately after reaching Nuwakot, but he started to study the stength of the Nuwakot army and the situation of the kingdom. Prithvi Narayan Shah did not like the delay of Biraj Thapa and so he sent another force under the command of Maheswar Panta. The Gorkha troops under the command of Maheswar Panta attacked Nuwakot instantly but the Gorkha troops were badly defeated. Thus, Nuwakot was victorious against the Gorkha invasion for the second time. At that time, the Gorkhali Army was unknown about the geographical situation of Nuwakot. During the war, the two Gorkhali commanders blamed each other. They did not try to fight to get victory. On the other hand, the Nuwakot soldiers were aware of the strategic points and they fought at the risk of their lives to save the sovereignty of their kingdom.

SHAH KINGS OF GORKHA
According to Bhasa Bansabali, the Shah kings of Gorkha were descended from a noble family of Chitor (India) who belonged to the Chandrabansi Rajput dynasty. The founder of this dynasty was Rishi Raj Bhattarak. The 33rd king of this dynesy was Bhupati Ranjee. He had three sons named Udaya Bom, Fatta Singh and Manamath. Fatta Singh had a beautiful daughter named Sadul. The Muslim King Allaudin Khilzi wanted to marry Sadul. But, Fatta Singh refused to fulfill his wish. So Allaudin Khilizi of Delhi invaded Chitor and Captured it. After the Muslim invasion, Manamath went to Ujjain and lived there.
He had two sons, named Brahmin and Bhupal. But Brahmin and Bhupal did not want to live together. The youngest brother Bhupal left Ujain and came to Ridi. He lived there for some time. After some days, Bhupal left Ridi and reached Bhirkot. He began to settle there. He had two sons named Harihar Singh and Ajaya Singh, they were also called 'Khancha Khan' and 'Mincha Khan'. Khancha Khan had established a small principality of Dhor. Khan established a small principality of Nuwakot. Then he began to rule over there.

KULAMARDAN SHAH
Kulamardan was the descendant of Mincha. He ruled over Nuwakot, and, in due course of time annexed Kaski to his kingdom. He was a powerful king and acquired the titoe of 'Shah' from the emperor of Delhi. Since then, the 'Shah' surname has been used by the kings of Gorkha. He had seven sons. At that time there was no king in Lamjung. The people of Lamjung approached Kulamardan Shah and begged one of his sons to rule over the kingdom of Lamjung. Kulamardan Shah sent his second son, Kalu Shah with them. The people of Lamjung made Kalu Shah, their king, but he died soon. After the death of Kalu Shah, the people of Lamjung again asked Kalumandan to give his youngest son. Now Yashovarma Shah was sent to rule over Lamjung. Yashovarma had two sons, Narahari Shah and Drabya Shah. Narahari Shah rule over Lamjung and Drabya Shah conquered Gorkha and established an independent kingom.

DRABYA SHAH
Drabya Shah was a brave, clever and an ambitious man from his childhood. He was not satisfied with himself living under the shadow of his brother. He wanted to establish a kingdom of his own. In those days, there were several small principalities in the neighbourhood of Gorkhs. The Kinghom of Gorkha was ruled over by Khadkas. The people of Gorkha, particularly the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas, were not satisfied with the rule of the Khadka kings. Some of the leaders of the people, like Ganesh Pande, Bhagirath Panta, Ganga Rana nad Naryan Aryal, were planning to dethrone the Khadka king and to replace him by a Kshatriya king.
They were the well wishers of Drabya Shah. Narayan Aryal was also an astrologer. They met Drabya Shah and helped him to conquer Lig Lig which was under the rule of a Ghale King of the Magar tribe. There was a special system electing the ruler. In every year, on the day of Bijaya Dashami, a racing competition was held in Lig Lig. On the race, the winner would be made king. On that day, all the people of Lig Lig were engaged in choosing the ruler, Drabya Shah atacked Lig Lig and captured it. Then Drabya Shah came to Gorkha and gradually, he expanded his power and captured Gorkha. He became the ruler of Gorkha on 27th Sept. 1559 A.D. Thus, Drabya Shah founded the ruling dynasty of the Gorkha kingdom. He also conquered Siranchowk, Azirgarh and Dhading. The growing power of Drabya Shah excited the jealousy of his brother Narahari Shah, the king of Lamjung. Narahari Shah began to claim the kingdoms acquired by his brother, Drabya Shah. But Drabya Shah did not entertain his claim. So, there arose a quarrel between the two brothers. In order to pacify them, their mother fixed the boundary of the Chepe river separating the dominions of her two sons.
They did not quarred so long as their mother was alive. Narahari Shah was determined to kill his brother, however. After the death of their mother, Narahari Shah invited Drabya Shah to perform the 'Shradha' ceremony. He had planned to kill on that occasion. But, Drabya Shah came to know the evil intention of his brother. He fled away from there and reached Gorkha. After some days, Narahari Shah attacked Gorkha but he was repulsed. Drabya Shah made his kingdom a powerful one. He declared himself to be a Gorkhali king and gained the popularity of his people. He allowed the people to celebrate their festivals in their own way and did not hamper their local customs and traditions. He recruited the local people of Gorkha in the military force and appointed them in the higher posts of administration according to their merit.
Thus, he became a popular and successful ruler of Gorkha. He found little time for administrative reforms. He ruled for eleven years and died in 1570 A.D. After Drabya Shah,his son Purandar Shah ruled for thirty-five years. After Purandar Shah, his son Chhatra Shah ruled only for seven months and died. After his death, his brother Ram Shah ascended the throne of Gorkha.

RAM SHAH
Ram Shah ascended the throne of Gorkha in 1606 A.D. He ruled for twenty-six years. He was a good reformer, able administrator and a great warrior. He annexed all the small principalities surrounding Gorkha. He extended his kingdom as far as Kerung and Rasuwa in the north, Trishuli in the east, Marshyangdi in the west and the Mahabharat range in the south. The king of Lamjung made an unsuccessful plot to kill Ram Shah while on a hunting expedition. Ram Shah was not only a conqueror but also an able administrator. He maintained friendly relationships with the kings of Palpa, Jumala and Patan. He also sent presents to the Mughal emperor of India. Ram Shah brought radical changes in the society by introducing various reforms.
He can be compared with Jayasthiti Malla of Kathmandu for his reforms. The reforms made by Ram Shah can be Mentioned under the following heads: Social and Administrative Reforms: In those days, there were different weights and measures in different places of Nepal. Ram Shah introduced a new system of standard weights, scales and measure. He introduced a new table which is given below:
10 lals - 1 masha10 mashas - 1 tola18 tolas - 1 pal27 tolas - 1 bodi4 bodis - 1 bisauli2 bisaulis - 1 dharni10 muthis - 1 mana8 manas - 1 pathi20 pathis - 1 muri
He fixed the rate of interest at 10% in cash and 25% in kind. In case of loans after 10 years, the creditor should not claim more than double the amount in cash and treble the quantity in kind. So, compound interest could not be charged. He made rules and regulations for the use of water from the canals. The people could use it by turn, to irrigate the fields. If any dispute arose over it, the Village Panchayats were empowered to settle the disputes.
The king's cousins and nephews had to serve the king as his body-guards. The king had to take their recommendations to make grants of lands. The Kazi (or minister) had to report to the king what was just, proper and true. All the lands of the kingdom belonged to the king and the Brahmins were entitled to them only through royal grants. Demarcation of land was also done while grants were given. He also made a rule for the use of dress and ornaments to be worn by the people of different castes and classes. The members of the royal family could wear gold ornaments from head to foot. The members of the Kazi and Brahmin family could wear any ornaments of toot but not of gold.
Ram Shah set up grazing grounds for cattle and encroachment upon the grazing ground would be severely dealt with. Trees were planted on either side of the road for the convenience of the travellers and for the perservation of forests. Those who cut trees were fined up to Rs. 5. He also introduced new titles as Kazi, Sardar and Khardar. Severe punishment was given to corrupt officials.
Economic Reforms: Ram Shah maintained trade relations with King Siddhi Nara Simha of Patan. He allowed the merchants of Patan to come and stay for trade in his kingdom. The merchants (24 Kothi Mahajans) developed the trade of Gorkha and enriched the financial condition of the kingdom. Land revenue was the main source of income of the kingdom. As a measure of land reforms, he granted a remission on land tax for a period of four years to newly reclaimed lands. He thus encouraged the reclamation of waste land. As a result, vast areas of land were brought under cultivation. Thus, there was a sound economic condition in the Kingdom of Gorkha.
Legal Reforms: Ram Shah empowered the local Panchayats to decide small cases of local interest. Only important cases were to be handled by the law-courts. He introduced the system of taking an oath in the law courts by holding a 'Shaligram' (holy stone). If a woman was found guilty of witchcraft, she was banished from the village. But if she proved to be innocent, the accuser would be fined. If one bribed a judge, he would be exiled from the country.
Ram Shah also framed new rules regarding capital punishment. If a member of the royal family was found to be guilty of murder, he was to be exiled. If a Brahmin, Sanyasi or Bairagi committed a murder, he would be shaved and exiled. However, if a minister or Kazi or other government official was found guilty of murder, he was to be sentenced to death.
For all these reforms of Ram Shah, there has been a popular saying "If you are deprived of justice, then go to Gorkha".
Successors of Ram Shah: After the death of Ram Shah, his son Damber Shah decame the king of Gorkha. After Damber Shah, Krishna Shah, Rudra Shah and Prithvipati Shah ascended the throne of Gorkha.Prithvipati Shah was a weak king. Taking advantage of this, Lamjung attacked Gorkha and occupied some of its territories. Prithivipati Shah had three sons. Among them, the second son Ranadulla Shah was a brave, clever and unselfish man.
Ranadula Shah went to Lamjung on the pretext of having picked a quarred with his father. He served the king of Lamjung well. The king of Lamjung was inpressed by him and trusted his story of a quarrel with his father. He made Ranadulla Shah the Governor of all the territories he had captured from Gorkha. Ranadulla kept quiet till he had consolidated his power and position there. Then he sent secretly a message to his father Prithvipati Shah asking him to attack the territories. When Prithivipati attacked, Ranadulla Shah sided with his father in the battle with Lamjung. Thus the territories easily fell into the hands of Prithvipati Shah.
As a result of this act of diplomacy, Ranadulla Shah became the favourite of his father. His brother Bir Bhadra, the Crown Prince, became envious of him. Bir Bhadra thought that the king would make Ranadulla his successor. Ranadulla Shah tried to make his borther believe that he had no ambition for the throne. But his brother was not convinced, and so he committed sucide. Thus Ranadulla Shah showed an example of unselfish service to the country in the history of the Gorkha kingdom.
At the tragic death of Ranadulla, the people of Gorkha were very shocked. Even Bir Bhadra grieved at heart. The people disliked Bir Bhadra because of whom their popular 'hero' Randulla had to commit suicide. So, Bir Bhadra left Gorkha and went to Kathmandu to worship Pashupatinath. He died on his way back to Gorkha.
Now, as both the princes were dead and the third one Dala Shah was blind, the question arose as to who would succeed Prithvipati Shah. But a son was born to Bir Bhadra Shah at the royal palace of Tanahun, while Bir Bhadra was away in Kathmandu. So, the baby son of Bir Bhadra Shah, named Narabhupal Shah, was brought to Gorkha and made the heir-apparent. After the death of Prithvipati Shah, his grandson Narabhupal Shah ascended the throne in 1716 A.D.

NARABHUPAL SHAH
Narabhupal Shah was a man of high ambition. He was a brave and courageous king. He wanted to turn the small kingdom of Gorkha into a big powerful state. While Narabhupal Shah was ruling over Gorkha, Ripumardan Shah was the king of Lamjung. With the help of the king of Tanahun, Ripumardan attacked Gorkha. The combined forces of Lamjung and Tanahun were defeated by the Gorkha troops and Lamjung suffered a heavy loss in the confrontation.
Narabhupal Shah got encouragement from his victory over the combined forces of Lamjung and Tanahun to extend the territory of his kingdom by conquests. He was well aware of the political situation of the Kathmandu valley, so he thought to attack the valley kingdoms. Before entering the valley, it was necessary for him to conquer Nuwakot, the western gate of the valley. So, he sent an army under the command of Jayanta Rana and Maheswar Patan to conquer Nuwakot, in 1737 A.D. The Gorkha troop was defeated by the joint forces of Kathmandu and Patan at Nuwakot. Narbhupal Shah was deeply shocked by this defeat and dismissed the leaders of the ill-fated expedition. The Pande chiefs seized an opportunity to fill the ears of Narabhupal Shah against the Magar chief, Jayanta Rana. Jayanta Rana was blamed as the sole person responsible for this defeat. He was greatly shocked when he heard it. So he left Gorkha and went to Kathmandu. He Joined the service of Jaya Prakash Malla. Jaya Prakash Malla made him the chief of Nuwakot.
Because of the defeat at Nuvakot in 1737 A.D., Narabhupal Shah gave up all hope to extend his kingdom. He was deeply shocked at heart and he left all the affairs of the state and began to pass his days in religious observances. His wife Chandraprabha brought him tactfully into the palace and conducted the state affairs with the help of the Crown Prince Prithvi Narayan Shah. Narabhupla Shah's sorrow could not be pacified and he died with the shock of his defeat, in 1742 A.D. Then Prithvi Narayan Shah, the future hero and the conqueror of the Kathmandu valley ascended the throne of Gorkha.

PRITHVI NARAYAN SHAH, THE GREAT
Prithvi Narayan Shah was born to Queen Kaushalyavati, the second wife of king Narabhupal Shah, on 7th January 1723 A.D. (27 Paush, 1779 B.S.). One night when Kaushalyavati had a dream of swallowing the sun, she woke up and narrated the story of her dream to her husband. On hearing it, King Narabhupal Shah severely beat her. The queen wept and did not sleep for the rest of the night. In the morning, King Narabhupal Shah said to the queen, "I have between you simply not to let you sleep,for the dream you dreamt is a very good one, and to make it fruitful you should not have slept". The queen was very pleased to hear it. Seven months after this incident, Prithvi Narayan Shah was born to her. On the very day of his birth, the senior Queen Chandraprabha also gave girth to a son called Brindakeshar. There arose a question in the palace as to who should be made the Crown Prince, but Brindakeshar died soon and Prithvi Narayan Shah became the undisputed successor. Prithvi Narayan Shah had four brothers, viz, Mohaddam Kirti Shah, Dal Mardan Shah, Dalajit Shah and Surpratap Shah. The elder queen Chandra Prabhavati did not have her own son.
Prithvi Narayan Shah was brave, clever, and courageous from his childhood. He got good moral education and training from Chandra Prabhavati, Aryal and Joshi as well. He became brave, courageous, active, able administrator and good organiser. He always hated luxurious life. At the age of five, he began to study and, at the age of eleven his "Bratabandha" ceremony was held in Dhading. He was appointed as a co-regent along with Queen Chandra Prabhavati by Narabhupal Shah after his defeat at Nuwakot. Thus, Prithvi Narayan Shah gained experience of administration since his childhood.
Once he went to visit the temple of Gorakhnath, at the age of six. There he met an old man who asked him for some yogurt. The boy went to nearby houses andbrought some yogurt. The old man swallowed all the yogurt and when there was a little left in his mouth, he asked the boy to stretch out his hand. He spat a little yogurt into the boy's hand and told him to eat that yogurt. The boy did not like to eat it and threw it away immediately. The yogurt from his hand happened to fall on his feet. Then the old man said, "If you had eaten that yogurt you would vave succeede in what you speak of, but since the yogurt fell on your feet, you will conquer the lands that your feet tread upon". Saying so, the old man vanished. It is said that the old man was no other than Gorakhanath himself.
At the age of fourteen, Prithvi Narayan was married with twelve years old Indra Kumari, the daughter of King Hemakarna Sen of Makawanpur. Queen Chandra Prabhavati wanted to have matrimonial relation with Makawanpur with a view to get some help of arms and ammunition from Makawanpur. The marriage ceremony was held in Makawanpur. After the Marriage was solemnised, Prithvi Narayan Shah wanted to take his wife with him, but according to the custom of Makawanpur, she was not to be sent to her husband immediately after the marriage. He came alone to Gorkha. After some time, he went Makawanpur to take his wife. But a dispute arose between Prithvi Narayan Shah and the king of Makawanpur and Prithvi Narayan Shah left again Makawanpur alone. On his way back to Gorkha, he went to see the kingdoms of the valley. He disguised himself as an ordinary man and from the hill of Chandragiri he saw the valley kingdoms, which he wanted to conquer for himself.
On 21st January 1740 A.D., Crown Prince Prithvi Narayan Shah went to Chepe and concluded a treaty with Ripu Mardan Shah, the king of Lamjung. They agreed to maintain cordial relation with each other.
He was very displeased with the king of Makawanpur, and in retaliation, he married Narendra Laxmi, the daughter of Abhiman Singh, a Rajput of Benaras. The marriage ceremony was held at Gorakhpur in February 1740 A.D. Then Queen Chandra Prabhavati sent Prithvi Narayan Shah to Bhaktapur to study the situation of the Kathmandu valley. Prithvi Narayan Shah contracted a friendship with Bir Narasimha Malla, son of Ranjit Malla, and stayed for three months in Bhaktapur. Having acquainted himself with the geographical, political, economic and strategic position of the valley, he went back to Gorkha in 1740 A.D. via Nuwakot. At that time he also maintained a friendly relation with Jaya Prakash Malla of Kathmandu. In the meantime, Narabhupal Shah died and Prithvi Narayan Shah ascended the throne of Gorkha on 3rd April 1743 A.D.
When the king of Makawanpur heard that Prithvi Narayan Shah had ascended the throne of Gorkha, he invited him to visit Makwanpur and take his wife with him. Prithvi Narayan Shah was unwilling to go to Makawanpur to invade the valley. So, he went to Makawanpur. But no good understanding between the two kings could be established. It so happened that the soldiers of Makawanpur saluted Prithvi Narayan Shah without removing their shoes. Prithvi Narayan Shah considered this as an insult. So, in a fit of passion, he beheaded some of them with his sword. At this, there were serious exchanges of hot words between Prithvi Narayan Shah and the Prince of Makawanpur, Digbhandhan Sen. Prithvi Narayan Shah returned to Gorkha empty-handed but with full information about the Malla rulers of Kathmandu valley.

INVASION OF NUWAKOT
Prithvi Narayan Shah was an ambitious king. He wanted to extend the territory of his kingdom far and wide. He also wanted to conquer the small kingdoms and unite them into a strong nation. His main target was the kingdoms of Kathmandu valley. Before invading the valley, he had to capture Nuwakot, which was the gateway to the valley and main trade passes between Kantipur and Tibet. His father Narabhupal Shah had been unsuccessful in his attempt to conquer the kingdom of Nuwakot.
Then Prithvi Narayan Shah attacked Belkot. Kalu Pandey was not in favour of the hasty action but Prithvi Narayan Shah, who was encouraged by his conquest of Nuwakot, gallantly attacked Belkot. The Gorkha troops suffered a heavy loss in this battle. At last, the Gorkha troops won a victory over Belkot. Jayanta Rana, who was, in the past, the commander of the Gorkha army during the reign of Narabhupal Shah, was the commander of the Malla troops installed at Belkot. It is said that Prithvi Narayan Shah ordered his soldiers to skin the living body of Jayanta Rana. He was said to have treated Jayanta Rana in that manner to show the fate of a betrayer of Gorkha. After the conquest of Nuwakot, Prithvi Narayan Shah began to control all the areas around the valley. He captured Naddum, Mahadev Pokhari, Dahachowk, Ippa, Malta, Siranchowk etc. He planned to impose an economic blockade on the Kathmandu valley.

VISIT TO BENARAS
The defeat at the invasion of Nuwakot taught Prithvi Narayan Shah a good lesson. He realized that the standard of his army was below what he had estimated. His troops lacked arms and ammunition and sufficient rations. Leaving his kingdom under the care of his trusted Kazi Kalu Pande, he went to Benaras (Kashi) to collect war weapons, and to study the political and economic condition of the East India Company and other Baise, Choubise Rajya. He reached Benaras, worshipped Bishwanath and changed his Gotra from `Bharadwaj' into `Kasyap'. With the help of his father-in-law Abhiman Singh, he acquired different kinds of arms and ammunition necessary for his army. He came back to Gorkha via Butwal and began to train his soldiers in the art of warfare. With the advice of Kalu Pande he sent for young men from the Terai, recruited them in the Gorkha army and gave them proper training. He began to prepare for the next invasion of Nuwakot. Considering the wish of the people, Prithvi Narayan Shah appointed Kalu Pandey in the post of Kazi.

PEACE ALLIANCE WITH LUMJUNG
Kazi Kalu Pande was a wise, brave and a far-sighted statesman. King Prithvi Narayan Shah had great trust in him. It was Kalu Pande who advised the king to maintain peace and friendship with the neighbouring kingdoms. He was afraid that the neighbouring kingdoms. He was afraid that the neighbouring kings might attack Gorkha while Prithvi Narayan Shah would be away on his invasion campaign. Prithvi Narayan Shah thus sent Kalu Pande to hold talks with the king of Lamjung. Kalu Pande had a cordial talk with the king of Lamjung at the basin of the river, Chepe. Because of the diplomatic mind of Kalu Pande, an alliance could be made between Gorkha and Lamjung, the two traditional enemies. After that, Gorkha made an alliance with Kaski, Tanahun and Palpa.

CONQUEST OF NUWAKOT
Gorkha was now made secure from all sides. Both Prithvi Narayan Shah and Kalu Pande thought that it was the right time to invade Nuwakot. Under the command of Prithvi Narayan Shah himself, the Gorkha troops attacked Nuwakot on 26 September 1744 A.D. from three sides. A troop under the command of Kalu Pandey, ascended the hill from the north through Gerkhu. The Second troop took the Dharma Pani route under the command of Kirti Mahodam Shah. A third troop was under the command of Prithvi Narayan Shah himself, attacked from the front. Shankermani Rana, the commander of the Nuwakot army was killed in the battle-field and the troops fled to Belkot. Thus, Nuwakot fell in the hands of Prithvi Narayan Shah.
Then Prithvi Narayan Shah attacked Belkot. Kalu Pandey was not in favour of the hasty action but Prithvi Narayan Shah, who was encouraged by his conquest of Nuwakot, gallantly attacked Belkot. The Gorkha troops suffered a heavy loss in this battle. At last, the Gorkha troops won a victory over Belkot. Jayanta Rana, who was, in the past, the commander of the Gorkha army during the reign of Narabhupal Shah, was the commander of the Malla troops installed at Belkot. It is said that Prithvi Narayan Shah ordered his soldiers to skin the living body of Jayanta Rana. He was said to have treated Jayanta Rana in that manner to show the fate of a betrayer of Gorkha. After the conquest of Nuwakot, Prithvi Narayan Shah began to control all the areas around the valley. He captured Naddum, Mahadev Pokhari, Dahachowk, Ippa, Malta, Siranchowk etc. He planned to impose an economic blockade on the Kathmandu valley.

WAR WITH LAMJUNG
Lamjung was the age old enemy of Gorkha. It broke the alliance with Gorkha, and taking advantage of the absence of the Gorkha army, crossed the Chepe and took Sirhanchowk. Prithvi Narayan Shah responded by sending an army under the command of Kriti Mahodam Shah and Bansa Gopal Panta. The Gorkha troops met the Lamjung-troops at Salimpa and a fierce battle was fought. The Gorkha troops defeated the Lamjung troops and captured it. Again, the Gorkha troops had to face the combined forces of Lamjung along with the twenty-four small principalities at Sirhanchowk. Reinforcements arrived from Nuwakot under Kriti Mahodam Shah, Kalu Pande and Ambar Pande. Rudra Shah from Gorkha sent more reinforcements. The Gorkha troops attacked the invaders in the middle of the monsoon and successfully drove them back. Many drowned in the rain-swollen Chepe. After that the `Chaubisi' were too weak to trouble Prithvi Narayan Shah any more.

ANNEXATION OF TANAHUN
Meeting with a Yogi (Sage) : There is a story of a sage who happened to come to Gorkha from Benaras. Prithvi Narayan Shah welcomed him and looked after him properly. The sage was pleased with the king and told him to ask for a boon. Prithvi Narayan Shah asked for the whole kingdom of Nepal. The sage said, "This will be granted when you meet me in Benaras". After some time, Prithvi Narayan Shah went to Benaras and met the sage. The sage was again pleased with the king and said, "Your desire will be fulfilled. I hereby give you the whole kingdom of Nepal". When Prithvi Narayan Shah solicited the sage to take something in return for his offer as `Guru Bheti', the saga said, "When you have become the king of the whole of Nepal, you must provide the necessary facilities for the pilgrims to Gosainthan". Prithvi Narayan Shah readily promised to do so and came back to Nepal. But after establishing his sovereignty over the whole kingdom of Nepal, Prithvi Narayan Shah forgot his promise. Then the sage again came to Nepal to remind Prithvi Narayan Shah of his promise. Prithvi Narayan Shah then set aside the revenue from the Dhading district to provide facilities for pilgrims to Gosainthan.

INVASION OF KIRTIPUR
After capturing Lamjung, Tanahun and other neighbouring territories, Prithvi Narayan Shah marched with his troops for the conquest of the valley. He first captured Farping, Bandegaon, Sunagaon, Khokana and other villages. Veteren leaders and warriors like Kalu Pande, Dalajit Shah, Dalamardan Shah, Tularam Pande and Bir Bhadra accompanied him. The Gorkha troops violently attacked Kirtipur. After a terrible fight for six hours, the Gorkha troops got a severe blow from the hands of the combined forces of Kirtipuris and Jaya Prakash's army. Prithvi Narayan Shah himself had a narrow escape. The brave 44 years old Kalu Pandey and four hundred Gorkhali troops were killed in the battle of Balkhu (Kirtipur). The Gorkha troops suffered a heavy loss and the surviving soldiers, along with the king, had to retreat back to Nuwakot.
Victory Over the Muslim Forces
To defend the aggression of the Gorkhas, the king of Makawanpur, Digbandan Sen, appealed for help to Mir Kasim, the Muslim king of Bengal. Mir Kasim was preparing to wage war against the East India company. At that time, Mir Kasim was in need of friends, he also wanted desperately to test his newly organized army. So, he accepted the request of Digbandan Sen and he sent his 2,000 strong soldiers under the command of Gurgin Khan in 1763 A.D. The Gorkhas defeated the well-equipped army of Gurgin Khan. The Muslim troops fled away from the battle-field and the Gorkhas captured their arms and ammunition. This victory over the Muslims raised the moral of the Gorkhas and discouraged the native states of India from interfering in the affairs of the Gorkhas.

CONQUEST OF MAKAWANPUR
Makawanpur controlled the southern routes to the Kathmandu valley. Prithvi Narayan Shah thought to conquer and occupy it. Because of the growing power of the Gorkhas, Makawanpur was terrified and the king of Makawanpur had planned to join in an alliance with Jaya Prakash Malla to subdue the Gorkhas. When Prithvi Narayan Shah came to know this, he sent an army under the command of Kahar Simha Basnyat, Bansaraj Pande and Ram Krishna Kunwar. The Makawanpur forces were fefeated in the ten hour battle and they surrendered before the gallant Gorkhas on 21st August 1762 A.D. On the war, 100 Gorkhali and 400 Makawanpur soldiers were killed. Then the Gorkhas attacked and occupied Hariharpur, Timalkot and Sindhulikot. The Gorkhali troops arrested Digbandan Sen, the king of Makawanpur, on February 13, 1763 A.D.

VICTORY OVER THE BRITISH FORCE
Jaya Prakash Malla of Kathmandu was alarmed at the growing power of Prithvi Narayan Shah. He sought help from the East India Company in order to defend his kingdom from the Gorkha aggression, just as the king of Makawanpur had appealed to Mir Kasim. The East India Company sent 2,400 soldiers in 1767 under the command of General Kinloch who tried to enter Nepal via Sindhuli. The 120 Gorkha soldiers under the leadership of Bir Bhadra Thapa and Kazi Bansa Raj Pande, attacked them in the hills above Sindhuli. The British soldiers were not aware of the techniques of hill warfare or the bravery of the Gorkhas. They could not fight against the Gorkhas and ran away from the battle-field. This time also, the Gorkhas captured a huge supply of ammunition and cannons which they used in future wars.

ECONOMIC BLOCKAGE TO THE VALLEY
Prithvi Narayan Shah had learned a good lesson from his defeat at Kirtipur. He planned thoroughly his invasion of Kathmandu valley and captured all the strategic positions round the valley. He had already captured Naldum, Mahadev, Nuwakot, Belkot, Shivapuri and Dahachowk, in the north and west of Kathmandu valley. He then occupied Makawanpur, the southern gateway of the valley. He also captured several villages that surrounded the valley. He cut off the imports and exports of the valley and brought about an economic crisis in the valley kingdoms. Prithvi Narayan Shah used to give capital punishment to those who would supply a little bit of salt and cotton to the valley during his economic blockade period. In this way, due to his fore-sighted diplomacy, Prithvi Narayan Shah weakened the position of the valley kingdoms and invaded them at the right time.

CONQUEST OF KIRTIPUR
Prithvi Narayan Shah had already occupied Dhulikhel, Banepa, Panauti, Panga, Farping and Chobhar, by 1764 A.D. On 16th September 1764 A.D. he attacked Kirtipur for the second time. But he was defeated again by the Kirtipuris. Sur Pratap Shah, the youngest brother of Prithvi Narayan Shah, lost his eyes in this battle.
However, Prithvi Narayan Shah did not give up his hope to conquer the valley kingdoms. For the third time, Prithvi Narayan Shah sent his Army under the command of Bansa Raj Pande who made a sudden attack on Kirtipur in December 1767. This time, the Gorkha ttroops got victory over Kirtipur. Prithvi Narayan Shah became so furious from his former defeats in the bands of Kirtipuris that he ordered that the noses of the people of Kirtipur over the age of 12 be cut off and the city to be named as `Naskatipur'.

CONQUEST OF KATHMANDU VALLEY
On 26th of September, 1768, when the people of Kathmandu, alongwith King Jaya Prakash Malla, were celebrating the Indra Jatra festival, Prithvi Narayan Shah made a sudden attack. The 1,000 Gorkha soldiers under the command of their king attacked Kathmandu from three sides-Bhimsenthan, Naradevi and Tundikhel. The troops of Jaya Prakash Malla fought for sometime, then they surrendered. Jaya Prakash Malla hid in the Taleju temple and fled to Patan for shelter. Prithvi Narayan Shah declared himself to be the king of Kathmandu and sat on the throne set up in the palace square (Basantapur Durbar square) for the festival.
After some days Patan was also attacked by the Gorkhas. The six Pradhans were ready to surrender before Prithvi Narayan Shah without any bloodshed. Tej Narasimha Malla, the king of Patan became afraid of the Pradhans as well as of Prithvi Narayan Shah. So, he went to Bhaktapur alongwith Jaya Prakash Malla. On 6th Oct. 1768 A.D. Prithvi Narayan Shah annexed Patan to his kingdom. After a year, on 12th November 1769 A.D. Prithvi Narayan Shah conquered Bhaktapur and occupied it. In this way, Prithvi Narayan Shah conquered the valley kingdoms one by one and several other kingdoms outside the valley, and laid the foundation of a Greater Nepal.
After conquerring the valley, Prithvi Narayan Shah began to prepare for war against Chaubise Rajya. The Gorkhali troops tried to control Kaski, Rishing, Dhor, Bhirkot, Parbat etc., but they were unsuccessful. Then Prithvi Narayan Shah turned his attention towards the eastern states. Prithvi Narayan Shah established his domination over Vijayapur and Chaudandi. He extended the boundry of Nepal up to Kankai in the east, Marsyangdi and Chepe in the west, Rasuwa in the north and Parsa to Jhapa in the south.

KING PRITHVI NARAYAN SHAH AS A PERSON
King Prithvi Narayan Shah was a high ambitious and great courageous man. He was active, kind, liberal and a just king. At the age of 20, the administration came into his hand. King Prithvi Narayan Shah had to spend most of his time in fighting. He did not find time to show his abilities as an administrator. He conquered several states one by one and unitd them into a mighty Gorkha kingdom. He established a sound administration with a stable economic base and laid the foundation of an independent country. He may be compared with such ideal monarchs as Alfred, the Great of Britain, Akbar of India, Bismark of Germany and Cabour of Italy. Behind his noble effort to conquer the small kingdoms and unify them into a nation, he had good ghoughts and inspirations acquired from practical experiences.
King Prithvi Narayan Shah was a high ambitious and great courageous man. He was active, kind, liberal and a just king. At the age of 20, the administration came into his hand. King Prithvi Narayan Shah had to spend most of his time in fighting. He did not find time to show his abilities as an administrator. He conquered several states one by one and unitd them into a mighty Gorkha kingdom. He established a sound administration with a stable economic base and laid the foundation of an independent country. He may be compared with such ideal monarchs as Alfred, the Great of Britain, Akbar of India, Bismark of Germany and Cabour of Italy. Behind his noble effort to conquer the small kingdoms and unify them into a nation, he had good ghoughts and inspirations acquired from practical experiences.
Prithvi Narayan Shah gave valuable advice to his successors, popularly known as "DIVINE COUNCEL" (Dibya Upadesh). The maxim he laid down for himself and his successors was: "It is with much travail that I have acquired this kingdom. It is a common garden for all castes. Let everyone realize this".
His expulsion of the Christians from the kingdom of Nepal proves his shrewdness as a politician. He was afraid of the growing power of the British in India. He was afraid that they might also try to spread their influence in Nepal to gain in strength through the Christian Missionaries in Nepal. "With the Bible comes the bayonet, with the merchant comes the musket" - was his firm belief. He also said, "Nepal is sandwiched between two powers, China and British India. We should have close relations with China and show friendship with the British. They (the British) are very clever. If they become masters of the whole of India they will probably create trouble in Nepal". This shows how far-sighted King Prithvi Narayan Shah was!
His financial policy was very sound. He was in favour of patronizing indigenous industries and putting a ban on the imports of foreign goods. His policy was to foster arts and crafts in the country, to improve the national dance, to encourage exports and discourage imports. It was his conviction that if foreign merchants were allowed to trade in the country they would drain the wealth of the country and impoverish the people.
He said, "Those who know how to weave the cloth in the country should be encouraged so that wealth may not drain out". In saying so, he gave much encouragement to the indigenous industries. Again, he encouraged exports when he said, "We should export herbs and other things to earn foreign currency". "Where minerals are available, the residents of that place should be shifted away and mines should be worked". Such was his opinion for the development of the country through natural resources like minerals. He also encouraged agriculture through irrigation.
He followed an enlightened policy. He often said, "My kingdom is a garden in which four castes and thirtysix sub-castes blossom forth". He was a great statesman. He favoured a democratic pattern in the appointment of ministers. He said, "Ministers should be appointed according to the will of the people". The good of the people is the good of the king. Emphasising his devotion for the welfare of his people he said, "If the people are healthy, the Palace (Durbar) will be stronger. The king's treasure is but the people".
He was a just king. In his opinion, corrupt officials were the number one enemy to the development of the country and they should be dealt with severely. The person who gives bribes and takes bribes is the enemy of the king and the country; his property should be confiscated. He said, "Let there be no injustice in the kingdom". He paid special attention to the militia of the country. So that his army should be well supplied he set up a musket factory and gunpowder works. Soldiers would be promoted in their ranks only on the basis of merit. Criminals in the army would be sent to the battle front to fight. They would not be sentenced to death.
"Nepal is a yam between two boulders" - King Prithvi Narayan Shah had spoken such words to show the geographical situation of the kingdom of Nepal, and the policy of friendly relations with neighbouring countries to be followed in the future. The words of Prithvi Narayan Shah are the guidelines of our foreign policy of non-alignment and peaceful co-existence.
Though he was not a scholar himself, he respected the scholars in his palace. Poets like Lalit Ballabh, and astrologers like Kulananda and Balkrishna found their due respect and places in the palace. The beautiful nine-storey Basantpur Durbar in Kathmandu, the seven-storey Durbar, the Ranga Mahal and Tilanga House of Nuwakot are evidence of his artistic excellence as a lover of architecture.

Malla Dynasty

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The Malla Dynasty

Shortly after the fall of the Licchavi Dynasty, the Malla Dynasty came into effect. This period of Nepal’s history started with the rule of Abhir Malla in the 12th century who slowly started to build an empire. The Malla line was of Newari descent and the family was able to rule Nepal between the 12th century and the 17th century. The period was characterized mainly by growth and development as many Malla kings took it upon themselves to develop new systems, to establish great cities and to institute new methods of government.
It was during the Malla Dynasty that the kingdom now known as Nepal truly became a great empire. During this dynasty the foundations for the great city of Kantipur, which later became Kathmandu, were laid. Over the course of five centuries only certain Malla kings are accredited with major achievements during the Malla reign. The first and foremost was probably Jayasthiti Malla, who had both a positive and a negative effect on his fellow countrymen even though his reign was relatively short. He commenced his reign towards the end of the 14th century and it was during his reign that the caste system, still in use in Nepal today, was implemented. Jayasthiti also implemented a number of social and economic reforms. For instance, he instated new methods of land measurement and allocation and he brought about the ‘Sanskritization’ of the Valley people. Other notable Malla kings were Pratap Malla, Siddhinarsingh Malla and Bhupatindra Malla.
The Malla Dynasty of Nepal started to fall into a decline shortly after the last major king – Yakshya Malla – died. Yakshya Malla ruled over Kathmandu Valley during the end of the 15th century, but was unable to carry on tradition and hand his crown down to only one son. Instead he divided his kingdom between his three sons – probably in an effort to avoid conflict. The three valley kingdoms became known as Kathmandu, Bhaktapur and Patan. Unfortunately, conflict was exactly what resulted from this decision since all three of his sons fought to gain control of each other's land and wealth. These wars were mutually debilitating and when King Prithvi Narayan Shahos decided to invade the valley, he discovered a valuable piece of land torn apart by internecine wars and a monarchy on the brink of extinction. Conquest was easy and complete, and with it came the end of the Malla Dynasty. The empire was later broken down into a number of small principalities which were later joined together to form the unified Kingdom of Nepal.

The Thakuri Dynastey

2009-06-19T00:33:00.000-07:00

RULE OF THAKURI KINGS

After Aramudi, many Thakuri kings ruled over the country up to the middle of the 12th century A.D Raghv Dev is said to have founded a ruling dynasty in October, 869 A.D., when the Lichchhavi rule came to an end. To commemorate this important event, Raghv Dev started the 'Nepal Era' which began form 20th October, 869 A.D. After Amshuverma, the Thakuris had lost power and they could regain it only in 869 A.D. The importance of this for the Thakuris must have been even greater because during Amshuverma's time they were only regents, but they became all powerful as the sovereign in 896 A.D. So, this historical event- replacing the Lichchhavis by the Thakuri rulers signified the start of a new era as 'Nepal Era'.
However, historians are of different opinions about the origin of the Nepal era. Some writers are of the opinion that Nepalese were superstitious. They dropped the unlucky number 8 of the Saka Era 801 and thus, they retained number 1 as the new Nepali Era. Some writers suggest that a new era was started in 869 A.D. to mark the occasion of Nepal becoming independent of Tibet. But our history does not agree with this view as Nepal was never under the Tibetan rule. There are also some other writers who say that there was a merchant called Sakhwal in Kathmandu during the reign of Ananda Malla. By his cunning tricks he changed the sand into gold and paid off all the debts of the people of Kathmandu. He then introduced a new era called 'Nepal Sambat' to commemorate this important event. But the reign of Ananda Malla comes three hundred years later, so this view also cannot be accepted.
All these opinions, except that about Raghav Dev, lack historical as well as logical proof. So, it can be concluded that the Nepal Era was started in 869 A.D., during the reign of Raghav Dev to commemorate the occasion of the Thakuri dynasty coming into power and the end of the Lichchhavi dynasty.

GUNAKAMA DEV
After the death of King Raghava Dev, many Thakuri kings ruled over Nepal up to the middle of the 12th century A.D. During that period, Gunakama Dev was one of the famous kings. He ruled form 949 to 994 A.D. During his rule, a big wooden house was built out of one single tree which was called 'Kasthamandup'. Kasthamandup was the root word form which the name of our capital town 'Kathamndu' is derived. Gunakama Dev founded a big town called Kantipur, the modern Kathmandu. According to Bamsavali, it cost him a hundred thousand rupees a day to build this town. He built more than eighteen thousand houses there. It was also Gunakama Dev who started the 'Indra Jatra' festival. He repaired the temple that lies to the northern part of the temple of Pashupatinath. He also initiated the practice of worshipping Lumadi, Raktakali, Kankeshwari, Panchalinga, Bhairab and Manamaiju. He introduced Krishna Jatra and Lakhe Jatra as well. He also performed Kotihoma.

SUCCESSORS OF GUNAKAMA DEV
Bhola Deva succeeded Gunakama Dev. The next ruler was Laxmikama Dev who ruled form 1024 to 1040 A.D. He built Laxmi Vihar and introduced the custom of worshipping a virgin girl as 'Kumari'. Then, Vijayakama Dev became the king of Nepal. He was the son of Laxmikama Dev. Vijaykama Dev was the last ruler of this dynasty. He introduced worshipping of the "Naga" and "Basuki". After his death, the Thakuri clan of Nuwakot occupied the throne of Nepal.

NUWAKOT THAKURI KINGS
Bhasker Dev succeeded Vijayakama Dev, who was a Thakuri form Nuwakot. Thus he established Nuwakot-Thakuri rule in the country. He is said to have built Navabahal and Hemabarna Vihar. After Bhasker Dev, four kings of this line ruled over the country. They were-Bala Dev, Padma Dev, Nagarjun Dev and Shanker Dev.
1) Shanker Dev : Shanker Dev was the most illustrious ruler of the Nuwakot-Thakuri dynasty. He ruled from 1067 to 1080 A.D. He established the image of 'Shanteswar Mahadev' and 'Monohara Bhagawati'. The system of pasting the pictures of Nagas and Basuki on the doors of houses on the day of Nagapanchami was introduced by him. During his time, the Buddhists wreaked vengeance on the Hindu Brahmins (especially the followers of Shivism) for the harm they had received earlier from Shankaracharya III. Shaner Dev tried to pacify the Brahmins harassed by the Buddhists.

SURYABANSI ( SOLAR DYNASTY ) RAJPUT KINGS
Bam Dev, a descendant of Amshuverma defeated Shanker Dev in 1080 A.D. He suppressed the Nuwakot-Thankuris with the help of nobles and restored the old Solar Dynasty rule in Nepal for the second time. Harsha Dev, the successor of Bam Dev was a weak ruler. There was no unity among the nobles and they asserted themselves in their respective spheres of influence. Taking that opportunity, Nanya Dev, a Karnatak king invaded Nepal from Simroungarh. According to chronicles, he made his residence at Bhadgaon and began to rule for some time. Mukunda sen, the king of Palpa, was another invader of the Nepal valley. He plundered and destroyed many houses and looted a huge amount of property. It is said that after the ivasion of Mukund Sen, the tradition of making Hakuwa rice, Gundruk and Sinki began in our country.

Shivadeva III
: After Harsha Dev, Shivadeva, the third, came to the throne. He ruled from 1099 to 1126 A.D. He was a brave and powerful king. He founded the town of Kirtipur and roofed the temple of Pashupatinath with gold. He introduced twenty-five piece coins. He also constructed wells, canals and tanks at different places.
After Sivadeva III, Mahendra Dev, Mana Dev, Narendra Dev II, Ananda Dev, Rudra Dev, Amrit Dev, Ratna Dev II, Someswar Dev, Gunakama Dev II, Laxmikama Dev III and Vijayakama Dev II ruled Nepal in quick succession. Thus, there was the rule of many kings after the start of the new era introducd by Raghav Dev. Historians differ about the rule of several kings and their respective times. After the fall of the Thakuri dynasty, another dynasty's rule started in Nepal which was founded by Arideva or Ari Malla. This dynasty is popularly known as the 'Malla Dynasty' which has authentic historical records.

The Lichchhavi Period

2009-06-19T00:30:00.001-07:00

THE LICHCHHAVIS

After the downfall of Soma dynasty, the Lichchhavi period began in the history of Nepal. During the time of Gautama Buddha, the kings of Lichchhavi dynasty were ruling over Baisali (Muzaffarpur, in modern Bihar). Baisali had a partly democratic form of government. According to the inscriptionf of Jaya Dev II, Supushpa was the founder of Lichchhavi dynasty. But he was defeated by Ajatsatru, the powerful Magadha King, in the 5th century B.C. Ajatsatru's descendents came over to Nepal and established their domain. when the kings of Kushan dynasty became powerful in India, the Lichchhavis migrated to Nepal. The 24th descedant of King Supushpa, Jaya Dev II, re-estabslished the rule of Lichchhavis in Nepal.
Brisha Dev was another powerful king of the Lichchhavis who extended his territory far and wide. Chandra Gupta I, the Indian emperor, was alarmed of the rise of Brisha Dev. He preserved the sovereignty of India by his wide political tact. He visited Nepal and married Kumara Devi, the daughter of Brisha Dev. Kumara Devi gave birth to emperor Samundra Gupta. Some historians are of the opinion that it was Bhasker Verma, not Brisha Dev who was the father of Kumara Devi. Another famous Lichchhavi ruler was Haridutta. He built four Narayan temples - Changunarayan, Vishankhunarayan, Sikhanarayan, and Ichankhunarayan. He also built Budhanilkantha. He made Vaishnavism the Royal cult of Nepal.

MANA DEVA
Mana Deva was the most famous king among the Lichchhavi rulers. Historians differ about the period of his rule. However, according to the inscriptions of Changunarayan temple, Mana Deva ruled Nepal from 464 A.D. to 505 A.D.
Mana Deva was the son of Dharma Deva. He was brave and courageous. He had acquired good skill in the art of warfare. He was a lover of art and architecture as well. While he was a mere child Dharma Deva died. His mother Rajyavati was about to immolate herself on the funeral pyre along with her dead husband (to become a satee), but at the request of Mana Deva she lived to nurture and inculcate good qualities in him.
Mana Deva was only a little boy when he ascended the throne. Taking this advantage, the Thakuri governors of the eastern provinces rebelled and tried to be independent. But he amassed his troops and suppressed the rebellion. Then he marched towards the west and occupied many provinces. With the help of his maternal uncle he invaded Mallapur, across the Gandaki river and annexed it to his kingdom. Thus his kingdom was extended up to the Himalayas in the north, the other side of the Gandaki in the west, the Koshi, in the south.
Mana Deva and his mother Rajyavati performed many religious sacrifices, gave gifts to Brahmans and worshipped Changu Narayan. Mana Deva was a great devotee of Lord Vishnu. He also respected Buddhism. He built many Vihars and stupas in different parts of the country. He erected an image of Tribikram Narayan at Lazimpat. He built a famous royal palace that was called 'Mangriha' at Gokarna from where the administration of the country was conducted. He also built the shrine of Changunarayan, and renovated the Chakra Mahavihar. He minted coins in his name for the first time in the history of Nepal, and named them 'Mananka'. He was a bold, handsome, strong and a liberal king. He was a wise administrator and the chief patron, guardian and great supporter of his people. He is considered to be the first king of Nepal having historical authenticity.
According to the inscription of Jaya Dev II, after Mana Deva, Mahideva and Basanta Deva became the king of Nepal. A few generations after Basantadeva, Shiva Deva I, ascended the throne of Nepal. According to Jagadish Chandra Regmi, Shiva Deva was the son of Mana Deva II.

SHIVADEVA I
Shivadeva was another illustrious ruler of the Lichchhavi dynasty. He ascended the throne in about 588 A.D. From the very beginning of his rule, he placed Amshuverma in charge of the entire administration of the country. Shiva Deva I was impressed by Amshuverma's heroism and administrative ability. So, he gave his daughter in marriage to Amshuverma and made him 'Mahasamanta'. Then the dual administration was held for some time.

AMSHUVERMA
During the reign of Shivadeva, Amshuverma was the de-facto ruler. At the death of Shivadeva in 605 A.D. he became the sole sovereign and adopted the title of king. He belonged to the Thakuri clan and thus he established the Thakuri dynasty in Nepal. He built 'Kailashkut Bhavan' at Devapattan and transferred the seat of government from Mangriha to Kailashkut. He also minted coins in his name.
Amshuverma was endowed with all the kingly qualities and virtues. He was a just, impartial and an able administrator. He was a true servant of the people without any political bias. According to some inscriptions, King Shiva Deva used to say that Amshuverma was a man of universal fame and he always destroyed his enemies by his heroic nature. Some other inscriptions tell us that he had a great personality, who dispelled darkness by the light of his glory. Hiuen Tseng writes about him as a man of high accomplishments and great glory. He himself was a learned man and respected scholar. He had written a book on Grammar in Sanskrit. The great grammarian Chandraverma, a scholar of Nalanda University, was patronized by him. He followed Shaivism but was tolerant towards all other religions. He can rightly be compared with the Emperor Asoka of India as regards his political outlook and impartial feelings without any religious prejudices. For the development of economic condition of the people he paid great attention to the improvement of trade and commerce of the country. Nepal had trade relations with India, Tibet and China and it became the thoroughfare of India's trade with China and vice versa. He gave equal importance to industrial advancement and agricultural prosperity. He made every effort to help the people by providing canals to irrigate the fields. He levied water tax, land tax, defence tax and luxury tax. He used the income from these sources for the development works of the country. He did not use it for his personal pleasure and luxury.
During the reign of Amshuverma, Harshverdhana of India and Srong Tsang Gampo of Tibet were trying to extend their territories. Keeping Harshaverdhana at arms length he made a metrimonial alliance with Tibet. He gave his daughter Bhrikuti in marriage to the Tibetan King Srong Tsang Gampo. He also gave his sister Bhoga Devi in marriage to an Indian King Shur Sen. With all this political sagacity and far-sightedness, Amshuverma maintained the sovereignty and independence of the country.

HIUEN-TSENG
Hiun-Tseng was a Buddhist monk of China. In about 630 A.D. he visited India via Tashkent to study Buddhism. He stayed in India for 14 years and visited Varanasi, Gaya, Kushinagar Kapilvastu and Lumbini. Though he did not visit Kathmandu Valley, he visited Lumbini in about 637 A.D. He prepared a detailed account about Indian culture, civilization and the successful administration of Harshaverdhana. He also noted down a brief account about Nepal. He described Nepal in the following way :
This country, Nipolo is surrounded by snow-clad mountains, of an area of 4,000 Lee (Chinese scale which is equivalent to 1067 km). The area of the capital is 20 Lee (about 6 km) Food and fruits are found in abundance. Copper, Yak and Mingming (Chinese name of a bird) are also found here. Copper coins are used in trade. The people of this land do not speak the truth. They are not dependable and trustworthy people. They have ill manners. They are not educated but highly skilled in art and architecture. Their appearance is not attractive and they do not look friendly. Apart from Buddhism, there are also people following other religions. Buddhist stupas and Hindu temples are constructed side by side. About 2,000 Buddhist monks have been studying here about Hinayan and Mahayan of Buddhism. The regining king is of the Lichchhavi dynasty. He possesses a wide variety of knowledge. He has a noble character. He has faith in Buddhism. Recently, Anchufabo (Amshuverma) was ruling the country. His glory and greatness is renowned. He has composed a book of Grammer. He respects learned and talented people.
Hiuen-Tseng also mentioned an oil line to the south-east of the capital. This source of oil was again metnioned by other Chinese travellers who visited Nepal during the reign of Narendra Deva.

SUCCESSORS OF AMSHUVERMA
After the death of Amshuverma, Usay Dev I, son of Shivadeva, ascended the throne. He was dethroned by his younger brother, Dhurba Dev. He went to Tibet and took shelter under Srong Tsang Gampo. Jisnu Gupta, chief of the Avir dynasty, helped Dhruba Dev to acquire the throne. Now Jisnu Gupta bacame powerful. Dhurba Dev ruled from Mangriha and Jisnu Gupta from Kailashkut Bhavan. The administrative authority was in the hands of Jisnu Gupta. Kailashkut Bhavan was the adminitrative centre of the country. Thus, there was a dual government. Eventually, Jisnu Gupta became the de-facto ruler. He minted coins in his name as Amshuverma had done, and declared himself the king of Nepal. After Dhurba Dev, a descendant of Amshuverma was placed on the throne. But again Jisnu Gupta's son Bishnu Gupta became the real ruler.

NARENDRA DEV
Narendra Dev was the son of Uday Dev II. Uday Dev had to take shelter under the Tibetan King Srong-Tsang-Gompo. Narendra Dev, with Tibetan aid took revenge against the enemy of his father and restored his ancestral throne by defeating Bishnu Gupta. Thus, he ended the double rule and became the 7th king of the Lichchhavi dynasty. He ascended the throne in about 640 A.D. He was a wise and good ruler. He always wished to see his people happy and prosperous. He was a man much given to sensual pleasure. He always wore Jewelled earrings in his ears. He loved flowers and variety of perfume. It was he who brought the patron deity Machchhendranath from Kamrup(Assam, in India). A Chinese Mission visited Nepal for the first time during his rule in about 643 A.D. Again, in 647 A.D., a second Chinese Mission under the leadership of Wang Hiun Tse visited Nepal. This Mission highly praised the development of Nepalese art and architecture. Narendra Dev also sent a Mission to China with presents and messages of good will.
Narendra Dev was a pleasure-loving king. He found pleasure in decorating himself, his palace and his people. The people wore earplugs of bamboo and bone. They used utensils of copper. They wore long and loose garments covering the whole body. The people were skilled in dramas and playing musical instruments. They worshipped Panchayan i.e., five Gods- Ganesh, Shiva, Bishnu, the Sun God and Goddess Durga. The houses were made of wood, decorated with carving and paintings. The pictures of gods and goddesses and of different animals were carved on the walls of the houses. Thus, the rule of Narendra Dev proved to be much advanced in all fields, particularly in art and architecture. He died in 683 A.D.

SHIVADEVA II
After the death of Narendra Dev, his son Shivadeva II ruled from 684 to 705 A.D. He married Betsa Devi, the daughter of king Bhogaverma of Magadha. Due to this matrimonial relation, he maintained a very good relationship with the powerful Magadha kingdom of India.

JAYA DEVA II
After Shivadeva II, Jaya Deva II ascended the throne. He married Rajyavati, the daughter of King Harsha Dev of Koshal. He was a learned man and a great poet. When his mother Betsa Devi offered a silver lotus to Pashupatinath he composed a hymn and inscribed the same on a stone behind the huge brass image of Nandi (bull) in front of the temple of Pashupatinath. During his rule Tibet made an unsuccessful attempt to invade Nepal, but was defeated at the hands of the Nepalese. The Tibetan king was killed in the confrontation. Jaya Deva II ruled in Nepal till 729 A.D.

ARAMUDI
Aramudi was also known as Baradeva. He made Lalitpatan (Patan) his capital, He was a brave and clever king. According to Kalhan's 'Rajtarangini' King Vanayaditya Vinayaditya was a powerful king of Kashmir from 770 A.D. to 800 A.D. He conquered many principalities of India and then advanced to occupy Nepal in 782 A.D. When the troops of Jayapid reached the Kaligandaki river ( near Ridi, in Palpa), Armudi's troops attacked the enemies. Jayapid ordered the Kashmiri troops to cross the river. At that time, the water in the river was only knee-deep. But when the invaders stepped into the river, the Nepalese troops let out the water that was harnessed by a dam. Suddenly, the river was flooded and the enemies were swept away. Jayapid, the king himself was arrested and imprisoned. Later on, when Dev Sharma the minister of Jayapid, heard this news he came to Nepal and met the king. He organized the successful escape of the king at the cost of his own life. It is said that he committed suicide and king Jayapida Vinayaditya crossed the river with the help of Dev Sharma's dead body and reached Kashmir with great difficulty.

CIVILIZATION AND CULTURE OF THE LICHCHHAVIS
There was peace and prosperity in the kingdom of Nepal during the rule of the Lichchhavis. Before the rule of Lichchhavis, Nepal could not develop its culture, religion, economic condition and administrative system, and lacked a skillful ruler. But, when the Lichchhavi period began in Nepal there was a great change in the political condition and economic system of the country. The Lichchhavi rulers were perfect in good administration. They built 'Man Griha' and 'Kailashkut Bhavan' as adminitrative centres. The Lichchhavi kings extended the boundry of Nepal and maintained good relationships with India, China and Tibet. The important achievements of the Lichchhavis can be discussed under the following heads :
a. Administration : For the efficient administration of the country the Lichchhavis set up a council of ministers headed by Mahasamanta. For administrative conveniencec, the kingdom was divided into provinces, districts and villages. There were law-courts to administer justice. There were local bodies called the 'Panchali' to settle minor disputes and to carry out the public utility services. There were edifices like Mangriha and Kailaskut Bhavan from where the whole kingdom was administered. The administrative power was not centralized but was passed on to the local bodies, associations and assemblies of the People.
The Lichchhavis had a well organized army. It consisted of the infantry, cavalry and elephant-riders. Proper training was given to the army from time to time. During war, the king himself led the army.
b. Foreign Policy: The Lichchhavis maintained a good relationship with the neighbouring countries. Nepal had trade relations with India, Tibet and China. Nepal also had become the thoroughfare between India and China. The marriage of Bhrikuti and Srong Tsang Gampo resulted in a good relationship between Nepal and Tibet. Nepal adopted a non-aligned foreign policy and maintained friendship with her neighbouring countries : specially India, China and Tibet.
c. Social Condition : Though the Lichchhavis were Hindus and there was a caste system in the society, other classes of people were not neglected. There were Ahirs, Kiratas, Thakuris and Bhutias. There was inter-marriage among different classes of people. People gave co-operation to one another and developed the sense of nationality. National unity was not hampered because of the difference of caste, creed and dynasty. They had a great respect, faith and love for the king, whose main function was to establish peace and order in the country. The king was also responsible for the development of the kingdom. People lived simple and pious lives. Ornaments, house decoration and entertainments formed part of the daily life of the people.
d. Economic Condition : The main source of income of the government was taxation. The merchants had to pay custom duty for the imported and exported goods. The vanquished countries had to pay tribute and war indemnity. The cultivators had to pay land revenue. The main occupation of the people was trade and commerce. Nepalese art and handicraft goods and other cottage industry products were exported to Tibet, India and China. Some roads were paved with bricks. Horses, mules and elephants were the means of transport. In the hills, people carried goods on their backs. People wore ornaments of gold, silver and copper. In this way, Nepal had a sound economic condition under the Lichchhavis.
e. Judicial System : There were law courts to administer justice. Learned men were consulted to make laws. Punishments were inflicted according to the gravity of the offence. There were different forms of punishments. But most of them were of reformative type. Thieves, robbers, murderers and rebels were punished severely. The local bodies like the Panchali also administered justice in the adjudication of local petty cases.
f. Religion : There was religious toleration. Even in the same family people worshipped different deities. The Lichchhavi rulers were the followers of Hinduism, but they never hated Buddhism. However, when Shankaracharya III came from India, he suppressed Buddhist and preached Hinduism. It is said that he forced the Buddhist monks and nuns to get married and live together. He is also said to have burnt 84,000 books on Buddhism. Despite these facts, the Nepalese people retained Buddhism. Both Hinduism and Buddhism flourished in Nepal under the Lichchhavis and there existed a mutual good will and understading among the followers of the two religions.
g. Literature, Art and Architecture : Sankrit was the official language. Sone of the Lichchhavi kings were scholars; Amshuverma had composed a grammar in Sankrit and Jaya Deva had wrtten poems in Sanskrit. Threre was a great development of art and architecture as well. Fine architectural structures like Mangriha, Kailashkut Bhavan , the temple of Pashupatinath, Changunarayan, Bhadradivas, etc. testify this. Similarly, the images of Tribikram Narayan, Dhumbarahi, and the metal works and crafts speak of the excellence of Nepalese art in the Lichchhavi period.
In this way, Nepal made all-round development under the Lichchhavis. The Nepalese civilization and culture was spread over to India, Tibet and China. The Nepalese society was also influenced to some extent by other cultures and civilizations. For the efficient administration, peace and harmony, the development of art and architecture and friendly relations with neighbouring countries the Lichchhavi period has been called the 'Golden Age' in the history of Nepal.

The Kirat Period

2009-06-19T00:27:00.000-07:00

The Kirats

The Kirats were the aborigines of north-eastern Himalayas. According to Baburam Acharya, they came to Nepal in about 700 B.C. and ruled over it. They were short and had robust bodies, broad checks, flat noses, thin whiskers, and dark eyes. They were well trained in the art of warfare, and were very skillful archers. They were the ancestors of the present day Kiratas: - Kulung, Thulung and Yellung. Yalamber, the first Kirati king of Nepal belonged to the Yellung clan.
Altogether, there were 29 kings of this dynasty who ruled over Nepal for about 1225 years. According to the chronicle (Bamsavali) of Kirkpatrick, Kiratas ruled over Nepal from about 900 B.C. to 300 A.D. On the basis of the Puranas and other ancient religious texts, it is presumed that the Kiratas ruled in Nepal after Gopal and Mahipal. The first king of the Kiratas was Yalamber, who defeated Bhuvan Singh, the last king of Ahir dynasty and established Kirat rule in Nepal. He extended his kingdom as far as the Tista river in the east and the Trishuli in the west. It is said that during the battle of Mahabharata, Yalamber went to witness the battle with a view to take the side of the loosing party. Lord Krishna, knowing the intention of Yalamber and the strength and unity of the Kiratas, thought that the war would unnecessarily be prolonged if Yalamber sided with the Kauravas. So, by a clever stroke of diplomacy, Lord Krishna cut off Yalamber's head.

The Kirat Kings
The 29 Kirat kings were as follows :
1. Yalamber 2. Pavi 3. Skandhar 4. Balamba, 5. Hriti, 6. Humati, 7. Jitedasti, 8. Galinja, 9. Pushka, 10. Suyarma, 11. Papa, 12. Bunka, 13. Swananda, 14. Sthunko, 15. Jinghri, 16. Nane, 17. Luka, 18. Thor, 19. Thoko, 20. Verma, 21. Guja, 22. Pushkar, 23. Keshu, 24. Suja, 25. Sansa, 26. Gunam 27. Khimbu, 28. Patuka, 29. Gasti.
During the region of 7th Kirati King Jitedasti, Gautama Buddha visited the Nepal Valley along with his disciples. He visited the shrines of Swayambhu and Guheswari and preached his doctrine. There are also references to the fact that Jitedasti fought in the battle of Mahabharata from the Pandava's side.
During the rule of Sthunko, the 14th king of the dynasty, about 250 B.C. the Indian Emperor Asoka came on a pilgrimage to Lumbini, in Nepal. To mark the birthplace of Gautama Buddha, Asoka got inscriptions engraved on rocks and set up a stone-pillar. In about 640 A.D., Hieun Tseng, a Chinsese traveller, visited this place. He has described that the stone-pillar was cracked due to thunder. The stone-pillar of Asoka was unknown until 1st December 1985 A.D. when Dr. Fuhrer engraved it. (Now His Majesty's Government of Nepal has set up a plan, 'Lumbini Development Project', to preserve this antiquity.) He also visited different parts of Nepal valley along with his daughter Charumati. To commemorate the visit, he got four stupas erected in four quarters and one in the central part of Lalitpattan, the modern Patan. They exist even to this day. Asoka's visit to Kathmandu is testified by the fact that he gave his daughter Charumati in marriage to Devapal, a Kshetriya Prince. She settled near Pashupati and founded a town called 'Devpatan' in memory of her husband Devapal. She also got a Vihar (nunnery) erected for herself which was called Charumati Vihar. The nunnery and its surroundings are now known as Chabahil. In this way, after the visit of Asoka, Buddhism flourished in the Nepal valley. Jainsim, another religious cult, contemporary of Buddhism, was founded by Mahavir Jain in India. Several disciples of Mahavir Jain preached the doctrines of Jainism in various parts of India. It is said that during the regin of Jinghri, the 15th Kirata king, one of the disciples of Mahavir Jain named Bhadrabahu entered Nepal in about 300 B.C. But his visit to Nepal was society and Buddhism was just being introduced. So, the Nepalese did not accept Jainism.
During the regime of Patuka, the 28th Kirati king, the Soma dynasty kings attacked Nepal several times. Patuka had to leave Gokarna because of the repeated attacks of the Soma dynasty kings from the west. So, he settled in Shankhamul and made it a beautiful town. there he built a palace which was known as the 'Patuko Palace'. Though nothing but a mound of the palace in ruins now exists, the place is still called Patuko. The last Kirati king was Gasti, who was defeated by Nimisha of the Soma dynasty and the Kirati rule came to an end. Thus, Nimisha became the first king of Soma dynasty.

Civilization And Culture Of Kiratas
During the rule of the Kiratas, Nepal made considerable progress in the field of art and architecture, trade and commerce. The Kiratis were not only good warriors but also good administrators. Men and women were treated equally. Criminals were given severe punishment. For the administration of justice, law-courts were established at several places-Kuther, Shuli, Lingual, Mapchok, etc.
Trade and commerce flourished under the Kiratas. Nepal had trade relations with Tibet, China and India. The exports of Nepal mainly consisted of wool, woollen goods, wood and herbs. Kautilya, in his 'Arthasastra', says that Nepali wollen blankets were very popular in the market of Magadha (Bihar in modern India). People took more interest in business than in agriculture. Because of its economic prosperity, people from different places, of different tribes and races came to Nepal and settled down. Thus, the people having different customs and practices all merged into a nation. This resulted in the development of a new culture of its own.
The cultural and religious life of the people was highly developed under the Kiratas, The main religion of the Kiratas was Hinduism. they worshipped Lord Shiva, serpents, trees, stones etc. The images of Kiratewar Mahadev and Birupakshya show the standard of architecture of the Kiratas. Buddhism also flourished under the Kiratas. The stupas, pagodas, and temples were all built on the model of Buddhist art.
The Kiratas developed a number of towns. The thickly populated centres were Malatirtha, Shankhamul, Thankot, Khopung (Bhaktapur), Khopase, Sanga, Teku, etc. Nepal exchanged its culture and civilization with India, Tibet and China. The introduced of Buddhism brought intellectual awakening among the people. In this way, the foundation of the vast structure of the Nepalese culture was laid down under the Kiratas. Indeed, this period can be regarded as the foreunner of the future development of the Nepalese society in all aspects.

Soma Dynasty Kings
The Soma dynasty had established a principality in the west while the Kirati kings were ruling over the Nepal valley. The Soma dynasty kings attacked Nepal several times during the region of Patuka, but they could not defeat him. The last Kirati King Gasti was comparatively weak, so he was defeated by Nimisha of the Soma dynasty. Thus, Nimisha became the first Soma dynasty king of Nepal in about 205 A.D. He built his palace in Godavari. It was from his time that the Godavari-Mela (fair) began to be held at Godavari, every twelve years. He also erected the four faced linga of Pashupatinath. He repaired the temple of Pashupatinath as well.
After Nimisha, Mitakshya, Kakaverma and Pashuprekshya Dev ruled over Nepal. Bhaskerverma was the fifth and last Soma dynasty king who ruled over Nepal during 280 to 305 A.D. It was he who led a military expedition and reached up to Rameswaram, the southern-most part of India. He gathered a vast treasure of wealth from this campaign. With this wealth he made a gold-plating roof on the temple of Pashupatinath and developed the economic condition of his kingdom. He filled Devapatan with his wealth and named it 'Swarnapuri'. He was childless, so he made Bhumi Verma, his heir, who was a Rajput Keshetriya of the Solar dynasty. Thus, the soma dynasty rule came to an end.

The Ancient Period

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The Ancient Period

THE MYTHOLOGICAL PERIOD

According to Hindu belief , the history of the development of Nepalese civilization and culture can be traced back to the Age of truth. King Manu, who is said to be the first King of the world ruled Nepal in the Age of Truth (Satya Yuga) and Nepal was known as the Land of Truth (Satyawati). It was called the land of solitary meditation and penance (Tapovan) in the Silver Age (Treta Yuga). Similarly, Nepal was known as the ladder of slavation (Muktisopan) in the Copper Age (Dwapar Yuga); and it is known as 'Nepal' in the Iron Age, i.e., the present age of science and technology (Kali Yuga). The kings of the Solar dynasty ruled Nepal in the Age of Truth. They contributed much to the development of the Nepalese civilization and culture. The fact that we still follow the Solar Calendar in celebrating festivals and ceremonies testifies to the rule of the Solar Dynasty kings in our country.
The country, full of great forests, was the chosen place for sages like Kanwa, Biswamitra, Agastya, Valmiki, Yajnavalkya and others. King Dushyanta of India married Shakuntala, the adopted daughter of Kanwa Rishi of Nepal. Their son Bharat ruled over here. Then Nepal was called Mahabharat, and the surrounding territories under the souverainty of King Bharat was called Bharat (now the other name of India).
The Mahabharat range stands to corroborate this belief of King Bharat's supremacy. There are several references in the religious books of Hindus about Nepal. Janak, the king of Janakpur was known widely for the administration of justice. Some people believe that the Ramayan was composed at the bank of the Saptagandaki. Veda Vyasa was born here. The Vyas Cave at Damauli (Vyasangar) signifies this belief. Similarly, Biratnagar, the kingdom of King Birat is also mentioned in the Mahabharata. All these references show that Nepal had developed long before Manjushri visited the Kathmandu Valley. It is mentioned in Swayambhu Puran that Manjushri came from China and managed to drain away the water of a big lake called Nagadaha and peopled the valley. He established a town called Manjupattan and installed Dharmakar, its king.
After that, the history of Nepal was more or less limited to the history of the Kathmandu Valley. Since then, Nepal has been ruled by the kings of various dynasties - the Ahirs or Gopala, the Kiratas, the Lichchhavis, the Mallas and the Shahs.

ETYMOLOGY OF THE WORD 'NEPAL'The word 'Nepal' has significantly been used as the name of our country. There are various opinions about it :
1. Long, long ago, the kings of the Gopala dynasty ruled over it. They were called 'Nepa', so, after the name of the dynasty who ruled over it, the country was named as 'Nepal'.
2. A sage called 'Ne' lived in penance on the confluence of the Bagmati and Bishnumati rivers. He was the sole advisor of the king. So, the word 'Nepal' was derived from the name of the sage 'Ne'.
3. 'Nepal' might also be derived from 'Newar', one of the ancient tribes living in Kathmandu valley.
4. In the Gandaki Mahatmya, it is mentioned that a king called 'Nepa' ruled over it. He conquered many kingdoms and established Shanker as his deity. He founded a country and called it 'Nepal', after his own name.
5. In the Tibetan language 'Ne' means 'home' and 'pal' means 'wool'. Sheep were reared in Kathmandu valley and much wool was produced. So, it was called the home of wool, i.e., Ne Pal.
6. In the Newari language 'Ne' means 'centre' and 'pa' means 'country'. So, 'Ne pa' means a country situated at the centre. Nepal is situated in between the two great countries, China and India. So, it was called a central country, i.e., Nepal.
7. In the Limbu dialect 'Ne' means 'plain area'. Kathmandu valley is a plain, so it was called 'Nepal'.
8. In the dialect of the Lepchas, 'Ne' means 'holy' and 'pal' means 'cave'. As it is a holy place - the centre of pilgrimage of Hindus and Buddhists, it was called a holy cave or Nepal.
9. In the language of the Tibeto-Burma people, 'Ne' means 'cattle' and 'pa' means 'people'. Kathmandu valley had a good grassland for cattle and the main occupation of the people was to rear animals. So, it was called the land of the people who reared animals, i.e., Nepal.
10. Thomas Young and Geroge Griharson, the two famous historians gave thier opinion that both the terms 'Nepal' and 'Newar' might be derived from the same root 'Nyarva'. In this way, Nyarva was turned into Newar and then to Nepal.
11. Kiratas, the earliest known inhabitants of this country, had a clan called 'Nepar' living in Kathmandu valley. So, Nepal might also be derived from Nepar.

SOURCES OF THE HISTORY OF NEPAL
There are no reliable written documents on the history of ancient Nepal. The people of that time had no historical sense. There had been the rise and fall of different dynasties all the time. The mode of administration, way of life, culture and civilization kept on changing from time to time. However, there are varieties of historical monuments, coins, temples, images of Gods and Goddesses, works of art, inscriptions, etc. which throw light on our past. They help us to draw the history of our country.
a. Chronicles: Chronicles (Bamsawalis) are one of the main historical sources which throw light on ancient Nepal. The chronicles mostly complied by Brahmins and Bajracharyas, deal with religious works of kings. Most of the available chronicles were written in or about 1800 A.D. The latest one was written by a Buddhist Monk of Patan during the regin of Rana Bahadur Shah. It was translated into English by Daniel Wright. A short history of the king, some important events related to the king, are mentioned inthis chronicle. But it does not contain anything about the culture, civilization and the life of the people.
b. Colophons : Colophons are the hand-written books (manuscripts) of ancient times. At the end of their manuscripts different writers have mentioned their names, the names of contemporary kings, and some of the main event. These have been of great to write our history.
c. Ancient Religious Texts : Great religious texts of the Hindus like the Puranas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, etc. also help us to collect the historical facts of ancient Nepal. The marriage of Sita, the daughter of King Janak of Janakpur with Prince Ram of Ayodhya helped to exchange the culture of Nepal with India. The Kings of Nepal had participated in the great war of Mahabharata. The king of Nepal also took part in the Swayambara ceremony of Damayanti. Similarly, the king of Nepal offered gold, diamonds, herbs, animals and beautiful girls as gifts to King Yudhisthira of India in his Coronation Ceremony. Such accounts and other references have contributed much to the writing of the history of ancient Nepal.
d. Stone and Copper Inscriptions : Stone and Copper inscriptions of ancient times can also be a considerable help to write our history. The inscription written on stones and copper are found from the 5th century A.D. to 8th century A.D. in Sanskrit. The Lichchhavi inscriptions at the temple of Changunarayan and those of Lazimpat are such inscriptions. but the inscriptions after the rule of the Lichchhavi King Siva Deva are yet to be found. However, from the 14th century onward, from the rule of Malla King, Jaysthiti Malla, there are sufficient inscriptions in various places on the basis of which it is possible to write the history of ancient Nepal.
e. Ancient Buildings, Temples and Stupas : Ancient buildings, temples, stupas, statues and wooden and metal images are other reliable sources of the history of Nepal. They provide clear evidence of the excellence of the Nepalese arts and sculptures. They also tell us the names of artists and sculptors, and their patrons. The most important temples are of Changunarayan, Pashupatinath, Hanuman Dhoka. Krishna Mandir of Patan, the Nyatapol (five - storey) of Bhaktapur, Swayambhunath, Baudhnath, Mahabaudha, etc. These temples and the statues of the Malla kings are of great historical value.
f. Ancient Coins : Different kinds of coins on which names of the sun, the moon, horses, bulls, etc., are imprinted, have been found in different places. These coins throw light on the character, work, period of rule, tastes and religious temperament of the kings of that time.

g. Foreign Accounts : This history of Nepal has also come to light from the writings and accounts of foreigners and foreign travellers. It is mentioned in Arthasastra of Kautilya that Nepalese woollen blankets were of great demand in the Indian markets. Similarly, the Rajtarangini of Kalhan speaks about the Nepalese war. Again, the collective writings of the Chinese kings of the 'Ming' dynasty, the accounts of the Chinese travellers like Hieun Tseng, and the writings of Indian and European historians throw much light on the history of Nepal.
h. Archaelogical Findings : Ancient vessels, coins, utensils, images and stone-taps have been discovered from recent excavation works at Tilaurakot, Lumbini, Bishalnagar, Lazimpat and Ratna Park. They also are of great historical value. It is expected that new archaeological evidence will be discovered from time to time that will tell us more about our history.

THE LEGENDARY PERIOD
There is no definite historical proof of this period. On the basis of legends, chronologies and folk-lores, a history is drawn on supposition. So, this period is called legendary period.
1. The Kathmandu Valley Kathmandu Valley consisted of a big lake called 'Nagadaha'. The lake was surrounded by hills on all sides and there was nothing but water in it. In ancient times, a sage called Bipaswi Buddha settled on Nagarjun hill, in the north - west corner of Nagadaha. On the full moon day of Chaitra, he sowed a lotus seed in the middle of the lake through divine inspiration.
After six months on the full moon day of Aswin, a lotus flower grew out of the seed and the image of Swayambhu appeared there throwing bright rays of light. Later on, Bishwabhu Buddha came with his disciples and settled on Fulchoki hill. He worshipped Lord Swayambhu with a hundred thousand flowers and taught his disciples how to drain out the water of the lake and went back.
2. Manjushri Bodhisattwa It is mentioned in the Swayambhu Puran that Manjushri came from China to worship the glowing flame of Lord Swayambhu. From the top of Mandapgiri (Nagarkot) he saw the flames constantly emanating from Swayambhu. Then he thought to drain out the water of Nagadaha. Placing his two Shaktis (powers) - 'Mokshyada' on Fulchoki and 'Barada' on Katwaldaha, he cut down the hill between them with his sword and let the water go out of it. A beautiful valley with good soil appeared and he asked his disciples to settle there. Then he worshipped Swayambhu and Guheswari. He made Dharmakar, one of his disciples, the ruler of the valley. He also founded a beautiful city and named it Manjupattan. Then, leaving his disciples, he went back to his country.
3. Krakuchanda Buddha Krakuchanda came from Kshamavati and lived in the forest near Guheswari along with his disciples. The forest was a beautiful place to live in. It was called Mrigasthali as the Gods and Goddesses visited this place in the form of deer to see Lord Swayambhu and Guheswari. It was also called Slesmantak because the Slesman tree grew there. Lord Shiva used to wander about this forest in the guise of a Kirat. A stone image of Lord Shiva is still found there which is known as Kirateswar.
King Dharmakar had no issue. So Dharmapal, one of the disciples of Krakuchanda succeeded him. Karkuchanda found that there was a scarcity of water in the valley. So, he prayed to Goddess Guheswari for it. The Goddess listened to his prayer and generated the river Bagmati from the north of Shivapur hill.
This place is now called Bagdwar, the source of the Bagmati river. Sudhanwa was another king, the descendant of Dharmapal. It is said that Sudhanwa participated in the Swayambara ceremony of Sita at Janakpur. During the ceremony he was killed by Kushadhoj, the brother of King Janak. Now Kushadhoj came to reign in Nepal. His descendants ruled over Nepal for many centuries.

4. Prachanda Dev At the end of the Dwapar Yuga, Kanakmuni Buddha from Shobhavati and Kashyap Buddha from Varanasi came to Nepal on a pilgrimage tour. When Kanakmuni went back to Gaud, he sent Prachanda Dev, the king of Gaud (Bengal) to Nepal to worship Swayambhu and Guheswari. He also advised the king to become the disciple of Gunakar, one of the disciples of Manjushri, Prachanda Dev, thus came to Nepal and became a monk. He was later known as 'Shantishri'. He covered the flaming image of Swayambhu and erected a stupa over it. He also made five penance groves, viz. Agnipur, Shantipur, Vayupur, Nagpur and Basupur.
The last king of Kushadhoj's dynasty died childless. So, Prachanda Dev's son Shakti Dev came from Gaud and made one of his relatives Gunakama Dev, the king of Nepal. It is said that there had been a great famine in Nepal during the region of Gunakama Dev. Then Shantishri (Prachanda Dev) with the help of the Nagas, got rid of the famine when they received plenty of rainfall. The last king of this dyansty was Simhaketu. During his region Nepal was quite developed in all aspects. Nepal had trade relations with India, Tibet and Sri Lanka. After Simhaketu, there was a long succession of kings. Dharmadutta came from south India, who peopled the country with the four castes of Hindus i.e., Brahman, Kshetriya, Vaishya and Sudra. It is also said that he built the temple of Pashupatinath.
5. The Gopal Dynasty There was a great earthquake and, as a result of earthquake, the temple of Pashupatinath and toppled down and debris had covered the flaming image. Then, Danasur (a demon) again filled the valley with water. So, Lord Krishna came to Nepal, killed Dansasur and married his daughter. He also drained out the water through the gorge of Chobar, and peopled the valley. A large number of cowherds had come along with Lord Krishna and they settled in Nepal.
Nemuni, who according to a legend, is considered to be the patron saint of Nepal, used to perform religious ceremonies at Teku, the confluence of the Bagmati and Bishnumati rivers. He selected a pious cowherd, Bhuktaman to be the first king in the line of the gopal (cowherd) dynasty. The Gopal dynasty ruled for 621 years. Yakshya Gupta was the last king of this dynasty. In course of time, pastoral disputes arose and this dynasty was replaced by the 'Ahirs' or 'Abhirs'. Ahir was another cowherd and shepherd race from India. Three kings of this dynasty ruled over Nepal. They were Badasimha, Jaymati Simha and Bhuban Simha. The Gopal and Ahir dynasties are supposed to be the beginning of the historical dynasty in Nepal. Bhuban Simha was defeated by Yalamber, the chief of the Kiratas, who invaded Nepal from the east and became the first Kirat king of Nepal.

Brief history of Nepal

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Chronology Of Important Events

ca. 563 B.C.The Buddha born in Lumbini, in Tarai Region of Nepal

268-31 B.C.

Ashoka establishes empire in north India

ca. A.D. 353-73

Samudragupta establishes empire in north India

400-750

Licchavi kingdom in power in Kathmandu Valley

750-1200

"Transitional" kingdom in power in Kathmandu Valley

1100-1484

Khasa Malla kings rule in western Nepal

1200-16

Arimalla, first monarch of the Malla Dynasty, rules inKathmandu Valle

1312

Khasa king Ripumalla leads raid in Kathmandu Valley

1345-46

Sultan Shams ud-din Ilyas of Bengal leads raid in KathmanduValley

1382-95

Jayasthitimalla rules as king of united Malla kingdom inKathmandu Valley

1428-82

Yakshamalla reigns--height of united Malla kingdom

1484

Malla kingdom divided; three kingdoms of Kathmandu, Bhadgaon,and Patan expand

1526

Mughal Empire established in north India

1559

Gorkha kingdom established

1606-33

Ram Shah of Gorkha reigns; Gorkha kingdom experiences firstexpansion. 1728 Chinese influence established in Tibet

1743

Prithvi Narayan Shah ascends to throne of Gorkha

1764

British East India Company gains control of Bengal

1768-90

Gorkha conquers Kathmandu and Patan, Bhadgaon, eastern Nepal,and western Nepal

1775

Prithvi Narayan Shah dies, first king of united Nepal

1791-92

Nepal defeated in war with China

1806

Bhimsen Thapa becomes prime minister

1809

Nepalese troops lay seige to Kangra, farthest extent of Gorkhaempire

1814-16

Anglo-Nepalese War waged; Nepal defeated

1837

Bhimsen Thapa falls, beginning unstable period in courtpolitics

1846

Kot Massacre takes place; Jang Bahadur becomes prime minister

1855-56

War waged with China

1856

Royal decree gives absolute power to prime minister and hisfamily

1857-58

Sepoy Rebellion waged against British in north India; Nepalaids British

1858

Jang Bahadur receives title of Rana

1877

Jang Bahadur Rana dies

1885

Ranoddip Singh Rana assassinated; Bir Shamser Rana becomesprime minister

1901

Dev Shamsher Rana forced to abdicate; Chandra Shamsher Ranabecomes prime minister

1914-18

Thousands of Nepalese citizens fight as soldiers for Britishin World War I

1923

Treaty of Friendship with Britain confirms independence ofNepal and special relationship with British Empire

1935

Praja Parishad established, first political party in Nepal

1939-45

Tens of thousands of Nepalese citizens fight as soldiers forBritish in World War II

1947

Nepali National Congress established through merger of formerAll-India Nepali National Congress with Nepalese Society ofBanaras and Gorkha Congress of Calcutta

1948

Prime Minister Padma Shamsher Rana announces firstconstitution of Nepal, then resigns; his replacement, MohanShamsher Rana, represses opposition

1950

Nepali National Congress absorbs Nepal Democratic Congress andbecomes Nepali Congress Party; civil war breaks out

1950-51

Ranas fall; King Tribhuvan regains control over army andadministration; interim constitution enacted

1952

King Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev ascends throne

1955

Nepal admitted to United Nations

1956

First Five-Year Plan of economic development initiated

1959

King Mahendra enacts new constitution; first general electionsin Nepal bring to power Nepali Congress Party with B.P.Koirala as prime minister

1960

King Mahendra dismisses the democratic government andimprisons B.P. Koirala and other leaders

1962

War waged between India and China; new constitution sets uppanchayat system

1963

First elections held to National Panchayat

1972

King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev ascends throne

1980

National Referendum supports panchayat system

1982

B.P. Koirala, Nepali Congress Party leader, dies

1986

Second elections held to National Panchayat

1989

Failure to renegotiate trade and transit treaties with Indiadisrupts economy

1990

New constitution promulgated as result of agitations andsuccesses of Movement for the Restoration of Democracy

1991

Elections to Parliament held; Nepali Congress wins a narrow majority; G.P. Koirala becomes prime minister.President of Nepali Congress and interim prime minister, K.P. Bhattarai, defeated in the polls by the leader of CPN-UML, Madan Bhandari.

1992

Local elections held; Nepali Congress wins a majority of the seats.

1993

Madan Bhandari killed in a mysterious car crash. Violent demonstrations by communists to overthrow Koirala's government; devastating floods kill hundreds.

1994

Prime minister Koirala resigns and calls for new elections afte losing a parliamentary vote due to the abstention of 36 members of his own party. New elections in November results in a hung parliament; CPN-UML, which emerged as the single largest party, formes a minority government.

1995

The minority goverment of CPN-UML loses power in a parliamentary vote of no-confidence. A coalition government of Nepali Congress, RPP and Sadhvabana is formed.

1997

The NC-RPP coalition government loses power resulting in a UML-RPP coalition. This government itself loses power six months later to another NC-RPP coalition. Ganesh Man Singh, who led the
Sources: The Third World Encyclopedia; Nepal and Bhutan, Country Studies.

History of Nepal

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History of Nepal

One can probably say that Nepal is as old as the Himalayas, when a great lake filled the Kathmandu Valley. One legend holds that this lake was drained by a thunderbolt thrown against the walls of the Valley by the Hindu god Krishna. Another claims it was drained by the patriarch Manjushri as he wanted to get a closer look at a Swayambhu or Adhi-buddha, the beautiful lotus flower resting on the lake.
But the recorded history of Nepal does not start until around 800 BC, with the beginning of the Kirat Period. After that was the Lichhavi and Thakuri Period, followed by the Malla Period and finally the Shah Period.

nepal

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National Anthem

Sayau thoonga fulka haami, eutai maala nepali
Sarwabhaum bhai failieka, Mechi-Mahakali

Sayau thoonga fulka haami, eutai maala nepali
Sarwabhaum bhai failieka, Mechi-Mahakali

Prakritika koti-koti sampadako aachala,
Birharuka ragata le, Swatantra ra atala

Gyanabhumi, shantibhumi Tarai, pahad, himala
Akhanda yo pyaro hamro matribumi Nepala

Bahul jaati, bhaasha, dharma, sanskriti chhan bishala
Agragami rashtra hamro, jaya jaya Nepala

Translation

Hundreds of flowers - Us, one garland - Nepali
Sovereign, spread out from Mechi to Mahakali.

Hundreds of flowers - Us, one garland - Nepali
Sovereign, spread out from Mechi to Mahakali.

A playground for millions of Nature's gifts
By the blood of heroes, independent and immovable.

Land of knowledge, land of peace, Terai, hills, mountains
Indivisible - our beloved, motherland Nepal.

multi-racial, multi-lingual, multi-religious and with a large culture
progressive nation ours, oh hail Nepal!

Lyrics Byakul Maila
Music Ambar Gurung
Adopted 2007